Margins Study Assistant

Chapter 1

American Government and Civic Engagement

Summary

Government is the system a society uses to organize itself and allocate authority. Politics is the struggle over who gets that authority and what they do with it. The United States is a republic: citizens elect representatives rather than voting on every law. Elite theory says a small powerful group sets policy. Pluralism says organized groups compete, and policy is usually a tradeoff among them. Civic engagement, from voting to contacting an official, is how people enter that competition.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

1.1 What is Government?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Government: The system a society uses to organize itself and allocate authority.
Politics: The process of gaining and exercising control inside government.
Democracy: A system in which people govern themselves, usually by choosing representatives.
Oligarchy: Rule by a small group, often the wealthy or the well connected.
Public goods: Goods available to everyone, such as national defense, that are hard to exclude people from.

1.2 Who Governs? Elitism, Pluralism, and Tradeoffs

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Elite theory: The claim that a small, powerful group controls the most important policy.
Pluralist theory: The claim that organized groups compete, and that competition shapes policy.
Tradeoff: A compromise in which each side gives up something to get something else.

1.3 Engagement in a Democracy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Civic engagement: Individual and group actions that address issues of public concern.
Social capital: The connections and networks that make cooperation easier.
Partisanship: A strong preference for one party and a tendency to see politics through that preference.

Chapter 2

The Constitution and Its Origins

Read chapter 2 in the book

Summary

The Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation, which had left Congress unable to tax, with no independent executive, and with no national court system of general jurisdiction. The Great Compromise created a House based on population and a Senate with two seats for every state. Separation of powers and checks and balances divide authority so no branch holds all of it. An amendment is proposed by two-thirds of both houses, or by a convention called by two-thirds of the states, and it is ratified by three-fourths of the states.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

2.1 The Pre-Revolutionary Period and the Roots of the American Political Tradition

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Social contract: The idea that people consent to government in exchange for protection of basic rights.
Natural rights: Rights, such as life and liberty, that Locke treated as existing before government.

2.2 The Articles of Confederation

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Articles of Confederation: The first U.S. constitution, a league that left most power with the states.
Republic: A government in which citizens elect representatives to govern.

2.3 The Development of the Constitution

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Great Compromise: The deal for a House by population and a Senate with equal state votes.
Three-Fifths Compromise: The deal that counted three-fifths of the enslaved population for representation and direct taxes.
Separation of powers: Dividing legislative, executive, and judicial power among three branches.
Checks and balances: Each branch has tools to limit the other two.

2.4 The Ratification of the Constitution

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Federalists: Supporters of ratifying the Constitution.
Anti-Federalists: Opponents who feared a strong national government and wanted a bill of rights.
The Federalist Papers: Essays written to explain and defend the Constitution during ratification.

2.5 Constitutional Change

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Amendment: A formal change to the Constitution.
Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments, added to protect individual liberties.

Chapter 3

American Federalism

Read chapter 3 in the book

Summary

Federalism divides power between the national government and the states. Enumerated powers are written in the Constitution. The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states, or the people, the powers not given to the nation and not denied to the states. Concurrent powers, such as taxing, belong to both levels. When a valid federal law conflicts with a state law, the Supremacy Clause makes the federal law prevail. Categorical grants come with narrow rules. Block grants leave the state more room.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

3.1 The Division of Powers

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Federalism: A system that divides power between a national government and state governments.
Enumerated powers: Powers the Constitution expressly grants to the national government.
Reserved powers: Powers left to the states or the people by the Tenth Amendment.
Supremacy clause: The rule that the Constitution and valid federal law beat conflicting state law.

3.2 The Evolution of American Federalism

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Dual federalism: A view of national and state power as separate layers.
Cooperative federalism: A view in which national and state governments share programs and costs.

3.3 Intergovernmental Relationships

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Categorical grant: Federal money for a narrow purpose, with conditions attached.
Block grant: Federal money for a broader purpose, with fewer conditions.
Unfunded mandate: A federal requirement that states must meet without full federal funding.

3.4 Competitive Federalism Today

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Devolution: The shift of program authority from the national government back toward the states.
Venue shopping: Choosing the level of government most likely to give a group what it wants.

3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Federalism

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Race-to-the-bottom: States cutting rules or benefits so they do not lose business or residents to other states.

Chapter 4

Civil Liberties

Read chapter 4 in the book

Summary

Civil liberties are limits on government. The Bill of Rights first restricted the national government. Selective incorporation, through the Fourteenth Amendment’s due process clause, has applied most of those limits to the states as well. The First Amendment covers speech, press, religion, assembly, and petition. The Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments set rules for searches, interrogations, counsel, and punishment. Those rights are not absolute: government may regulate the time, place, and manner of speech, and it may search with a warrant or a recognized exception.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

4.1 What Are Civil Liberties?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Civil liberties: Limits on government power, designed to protect individual freedom.
Selective incorporation: The case-by-case application of Bill of Rights protections to the states.

4.2 Securing Basic Freedoms

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Establishment clause: The First Amendment bar on government establishing or favoring a religion.
Free exercise clause: The First Amendment protection of religious practice.
Prior restraint: Government action that stops speech or publication before it happens.

4.3 The Rights of Suspects

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Exclusionary rule: Evidence obtained illegally is generally barred from the prosecution’s case.
Miranda warning: The notice of silence and counsel required before custodial interrogation.

4.4 Interpreting the Bill of Rights

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Right to privacy: A protection the Court has drawn from several amendments, not from one clause that uses the word privacy.
Undue burden: A test the Court has used to judge whether a law places too heavy a load on a protected right.

Chapter 5

Civil Rights

Read chapter 5 in the book

Summary

Civil rights are guarantees that government will treat people equally. The Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause is the main constitutional hook. Courts do not use the same test for every distinction. Strict scrutiny, the hardest test for the government to pass, applies to race and to burdens on fundamental rights. Intermediate scrutiny is the usual test for sex classifications. Rational basis is the ordinary test, and government usually wins it. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 are the modern statutory core of this struggle.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

5.1 What Are Civil Rights and How Do We Identify Them?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Civil rights: Guarantees of equal treatment by government, and by others when statutes require it.
Equal protection clause: The Fourteenth Amendment rule that a state may not deny any person equal protection of the laws.
Strict scrutiny: The toughest test: a compelling interest and a narrowly tailored law.
Rational basis test: The ordinary test: the law must be rationally related to a legitimate government interest.

5.2 The African American Struggle for Equality

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Disenfranchisement: Being denied the right to vote, or having that right made practically useless.
Jim Crow: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation.

5.3 The Fight for Women’s Rights

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Intermediate scrutiny: The middle test, often used for sex classifications.
Equal Rights Amendment: A proposed amendment, never ratified, that would have barred denial of equality on account of sex.

5.4 Civil Rights for Indigenous Groups: Native Americans, Alaskans, and Hawaiians

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

American Indian nations: Indigenous nations recognized as governments, with a status that is not the same as a state or a private club.

5.5 Equal Protection for Other Groups

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Affirmative action: Programs that take race or another trait into account in order to remedy disadvantage or build diversity.

Chapter 6

The Politics of Public Opinion

Read chapter 6 in the book

Summary

Public opinion is a collection of attitudes about an issue or a person. Political socialization, through family, school, peers, and media, shapes those attitudes over time. A scientific poll uses a representative sample and reports a margin of error. A straw poll does not. Leading questions, a nonrandom sample, and push polls all bend the result. People often answer with heuristics, mental shortcuts, rather than a full review of the evidence. Intense, stable opinion is more likely to move officials than a vague preference.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

6.1 The Nature of Public Opinion

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Public opinion: A collection of attitudes about a person, an event, or an issue.
Political socialization: The process of learning political beliefs and values.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts people use to form an opinion without a full study of the issue.

6.2 How Is Public Opinion Measured?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Representative sample: A group that matches the larger population on the relevant traits.
Margin of error: The range within which the true population value is likely to fall.
Straw poll: An informal, unscientific tally of whoever happens to respond.

6.3 What Does the Public Think?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Political culture: Widely shared beliefs about how government and politics should work.

6.4 The Effects of Public Opinion

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Theory of delegate representation: The idea that elected officials should follow the stated wishes of constituents.

Chapter 7

Voting and Elections

Read chapter 7 in the book

Summary

Voting begins with registration. Turnout is higher among older, more educated, and higher-income citizens, and it is lower in primaries than in general elections. The voting-age population includes people who cannot vote. The voting-eligible population is the better base for a turnout rate. The Electoral College has 538 electors. A majority, 270, elects the president. Most states give every elector to the statewide winner. Initiative, referendum, and recall are the three direct-democracy tools available in some states, not in the federal Constitution.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

7.1 Voter Registration

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Voter registration: The requirement that a person sign up before voting.
Voting-age population: People who are old enough to vote, including many who are not eligible.
Voting-eligible population: People who are legally allowed to vote.

7.2 Voter Turnout

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Voter turnout: The share of eligible people who actually vote.

7.3 Elections

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Closed primary: A primary in which only registered party members may vote.
Electoral College: The body of electors that formally chooses the president.
Winner-take-all: A rule that gives every electoral vote of a state to the statewide popular winner.

7.4 Campaigns and Voting

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Incumbency advantage: The edge a current officeholder has in name recognition, staff, and fundraising.
Straight-ticket voting: Choosing every candidate of one party.

7.5 Direct Democracy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Initiative: A process that lets citizens propose a law or amendment by petition.
Referendum: A vote by citizens to approve or reject a law.
Recall: A vote to remove an elected official before the term ends.

Chapter 8

The Media

Read chapter 8 in the book

Summary

The media investigate, interpret, and present information. Agenda setting is the power to influence which issues people think about. Framing is the power to influence how they think about an issue. Print, radio, television, and digital platforms each changed who could publish and who could answer. The equal-time rule still requires broadcasters to offer equivalent time to opposing candidates. The fairness doctrine, which pushed coverage of contrasting views, was repealed in 1987. Public officials who sue for libel must prove actual malice.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

8.1 What Is the Media?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Mass media: The collection of media that reach large audiences.
Public relations: Communication meant to create a favorable image of a person or an organization.

8.2 The Evolution of the Media

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Yellow journalism: Sensational coverage that prizes scandal and shock.
Muckraking: Investigative reporting aimed at exposing corruption or abuse.

8.3 Regulating the Media

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Equal-time rule: A broadcast rule that candidates must be offered equivalent airtime.
Fairness doctrine: A repealed rule that had required broadcasters to cover contrasting views on public issues.
Libel: Printed falsehood that harms a person’s reputation.

8.4 The Impact of the Media

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Agenda setting: The media’s influence on which issues people consider important.
Framing: The way a story is told so that some facts, and not others, define the issue.
Priming: The media’s influence on the standards people use to judge leaders.

Chapter 9

Political Parties

Read chapter 9 in the book

Summary

A political party organizes people who want to win elections and then hold office under a shared label. The United States has a two-party system. Single-member districts and plurality rules, the pattern Duverger’s law describes, make it hard for a third party to turn votes into seats. Parties exist in the electorate, as organizations, and inside government. Divided government means one party holds the presidency and another holds at least one chamber of Congress. Polarization is the growing distance between the parties. Sorting is the public lining up more neatly behind one party or the other.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

9.1 What Are Parties and How Did They Form?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Political party: An organization that seeks to elect its members to office and then govern.
Party platform: The set of issues and positions a party adopts.

9.2 The Two-Party System

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Two-party system: A system dominated by two major parties.
Plurality voting: A rule that the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority.
Third party: A party other than the two major parties.

9.3 The Shape of Modern Political Parties

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Party realignment: A lasting shift in the groups that support the parties.
Critical election: An election that marks a sudden, durable change in the party system.

9.4 Divided Government and Partisan Polarization

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Divided government: One party controls the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.
Polarization: The movement of party positions away from each other.

Chapter 10

Interest Groups and Lobbying

Read chapter 10 in the book

Summary

An interest group organizes people around a policy goal. Unlike a party, it does not itself try to be the government. Collective goods create a free-rider problem: people can enjoy the result without paying the cost of joining. Groups offer material, solidary, or purposive benefits to overcome that problem. Inside lobbying works directly with officials. Outside lobbying tries to move the public, which then moves officials. An iron triangle links a congressional committee, an agency, and an interest group in a stable exchange.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

10.1 Interest Groups Defined

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Interest group: An organization that tries to influence public policy on behalf of a shared concern.
Lobbyist: A person who represents a group before government.

10.2 Collective Action and Interest Group Formation

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Collective good: A benefit that members and nonmembers alike can enjoy.
Free rider problem: People take the benefit of a group’s work without sharing the cost.
Disturbance theory: The idea that groups form when an outside event disturbs people’s interests.

10.3 Interest Groups as Political Participation

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Material incentive: A tangible benefit, such as a discount, for joining a group.
Solidary incentive: The social benefit of joining, such as friendship or status.
Purposive incentive: The satisfaction of advancing a cause.

10.4 Pathways of Interest Group Influence

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Inside lobbying: Direct contact with lawmakers and staff.
Outside lobbying: Trying to influence officials by first moving the public.
Iron triangle: A stable relationship among a congressional committee, an agency, and an interest group.

10.5 Free Speech and the Regulation of Interest Groups

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Political action committee: A group that collects money and gives it to candidates under legal limits.
Citizens United: The 2010 case that let corporations and unions spend unlimited independent sums in campaigns.

Chapter 11

Congress

Read chapter 11 in the book

Summary

Congress is bicameral. The House has 435 voting members, elected every two years from districts. The Senate has 100 members, two from each state, elected for six years. The House is organized by the Speaker and by strict rules. The Senate allows extended debate, including the filibuster, which cloture can end by a three-fifths vote, 60 when all seats are filled. A bill must pass both chambers in the same form, then go to the president. A veto override takes two-thirds of both chambers. The House impeaches. The Senate tries the case.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

11.1 The Institutional Design of Congress

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Bicameral: A legislature with two chambers.
Apportionment: Dividing House seats among the states by population.

11.2 Congressional Elections

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Redistricting: Redrawing legislative district lines.
Gerrymandering: Drawing districts to favor a party or group.

11.3 Congressional Representation

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Trustee: A representative who votes by independent judgment.
Delegate model: A representative who tries to follow constituents’ wishes.
Politico: A representative who acts as a trustee or a delegate depending on the issue.

11.4 House and Senate Organizations

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Speaker of the House: The presiding officer and political leader of the House.
Filibuster: Extended Senate debate used to delay or block a vote.
Cloture: A vote, usually three-fifths of the Senate, that ends debate.

11.5 The Legislative Process

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Standing committee: A permanent committee with jurisdiction over a policy area.
Conference committee: A temporary committee that reconciles House and Senate versions of a bill.
Veto: The president’s rejection of a bill passed by Congress.

Chapter 12

The Presidency

Read chapter 12 in the book

Summary

Article II vests the executive power in a president elected for four years. The Twenty-Second Amendment limits a person to two elected terms. The president commands the armed forces, nominates judges and executive officers, vetoes bills, and may pardon federal offenses. A treaty needs a two-thirds vote in the Senate. An executive agreement does not, but it is a weaker and more reversible instrument. An executive order directs the executive branch. It cannot appropriate money, and a later president, Congress, or a court can undo it.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

12.1 The Design and Evolution of the Presidency

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Executive privilege: A claimed right to withhold some presidential communications from Congress and the courts.
Impeachment: The House charge against a federal officer. The Senate then holds the trial.

12.2 The Presidential Election Process

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Term limit: The Twenty-Second Amendment rule that a person may be elected president only twice.

12.3 Organizing to Govern

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Cabinet: The heads of the executive departments, plus others the president treats as the inner circle.
Executive Office of the President: The group of agencies that work directly for the president.

12.4 The Public Presidency

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Bully pulpit: The president’s platform for persuading the public.
Going public: Appealing directly to the public in order to pressure Washington.

12.5 Presidential Governance: Direct Presidential Action

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Executive order: A directive from the president to the executive branch.
Executive agreement: An international agreement made by the president without Senate ratification.
Pardon: A president’s forgiveness of a federal criminal offense.

Chapter 13

The Courts

Read chapter 13 in the book

Summary

Marbury v. Madison established judicial review: courts may refuse to apply a statute that conflicts with the Constitution. The United States has a dual system, state courts and federal courts. Federal trial courts are district courts. Appeals go to the circuit courts. The Supreme Court is the last federal appeal. Almost all of its cases arrive by a writ of certiorari, and four justices must agree to grant that writ. A majority opinion states the Court’s decision. A concurrence agrees with the result for different reasons. A dissent rejects the result. Stare decisis is the practice of following precedent.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

13.1 Guardians of the Constitution and Individual Rights

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Judicial review: The power of courts to set aside government acts that conflict with the Constitution.
Marbury v. Madison: The 1803 case that established judicial review in the federal courts.

13.2 The Dual Court System

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Dual court system: State courts and federal courts operating side by side.
Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to hear a case.

13.3 The Federal Court System

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

District court: The federal trial court.
Circuit court: The federal court of appeals.
Stare decisis: The practice of deciding cases consistently with precedent.

13.4 The Supreme Court

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Writ of certiorari: An order by which the Supreme Court agrees to hear a case.
Rule of four: The practice that four justices must agree to grant certiorari.
Amicus curiae: A brief filed by someone who is not a party, to inform the Court.

13.5 Judicial Decision-Making and Implementation by the Supreme Court

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Majority opinion: The opinion that states the decision of the Court.
Dissenting opinion: An opinion that rejects the Court’s decision.
Judicial activism: A willingness to overturn precedent or the choices of other branches.

Chapter 14

State and Local Government

Read chapter 14 in the book

Summary

State governments hold the reserved powers and write the rules for local governments. Under Dillon’s rule, a city has only the powers the state has granted. Home rule gives a city more authority to govern its own structure and local affairs. Governors often have a line-item veto the president does not have. Counties, cities, and special districts do the daily work of local government. Elazar’s three political cultures, moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic, are a map of how states have historically thought about government’s proper job.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

14.1 State Power and Delegation

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Dillon’s rule: The doctrine that local governments have only the powers states grant them.
Home rule: Authority for a local government to govern itself on local matters.

14.2 State Political Culture

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Moralistic political culture: A view of government as a means to improve the community.
Individualistic political culture: A view of government as a marketplace for individual goals.
Traditionalistic political culture: A view of government as a means of maintaining the existing social order.

14.3 Governors and State Legislatures

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Line-item veto: A governor’s power, in many states, to reject one item in a spending bill.

14.4 State Legislative Term Limits

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Term limits: A legal cap on how long a person may hold a particular office.

14.5 County and City Government

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Council-manager system: A city government in which an elected council hires a professional manager.
Mayor-council system: A city government with an elected mayor and an elected council.

Chapter 15

The Bureaucracy

Read chapter 15 in the book

Summary

A bureaucracy is a hierarchical organization with specialized jobs and formal rules. The spoils system filled jobs with political supporters. The Pendleton Act of 1883 began the shift to a merit-based civil service hired by exam and protected from removal for purely political reasons. Cabinet departments, independent agencies, regulatory commissions, and government corporations are the main organizational types. Congress oversees them with hearings, budgets, and statutes. The president appoints their leaders and can reorganize only within the authority Congress has given. Courts review whether a rule stays inside the statute.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

15.1 Bureaucracy and the Evolution of Public Administration

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Bureaucracy: A hierarchical organization that uses specialization and formal rules.
Bureaucrat: A person who works inside that organization.

15.2 Toward a Merit-Based Civil Service

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Spoils system: Giving public jobs to political supporters.
Merit system: Hiring and promotion based on qualifications and exams.
Pendleton Act: The 1883 law that began the federal merit system.

15.3 Understanding Bureaucracies and their Types

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Cabinet department: A major executive department headed by a secretary.
Government corporation: A government body that provides a service and charges for it, such as the Postal Service.
Regulatory agency: An agency that writes and enforces rules for a sector of the economy.

15.4 Controlling the Bureaucracy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Whistleblower: A person who reports waste, fraud, or abuse inside an organization.
Red tape: The dense procedures required to document and justify official action.

Chapter 16

Domestic Policy

Read chapter 16 in the book

Summary

Public policy is the course of action government takes on a problem, including the choice to do nothing. The usual stages are agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, and evaluation. Distributive policy spreads benefits widely. Redistributive policy shifts resources from one group to another. Regulatory policy sets rules for behavior. A deficit is the gap in a single year’s budget. The debt is the accumulated total of past deficits, minus surpluses. An entitlement, such as Social Security, pays those who meet the legal conditions. Discretionary spending must be appropriated each year.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

16.1 What Is Public Policy?

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Public policy: The broad course of action government takes, or deliberately does not take, on a problem.
Policy agenda: The problems officials are actively considering.

16.2 Categorizing Public Policy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Distributive policy: A policy that spreads benefits across many groups.
Redistributive policy: A policy that shifts resources from one group toward another.
Regulatory policy: A policy that sets rules and standards for behavior.

16.3 Policy Arenas

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Entitlement: A program that pays benefits to anyone who meets the legal conditions.
Social Security: The federal social-insurance program of retirement, disability, and survivors’ benefits.
Medicaid: A joint federal-state program of health coverage for people with low incomes.

16.4 Policymakers

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Implementation: The work of carrying a policy out after it has been adopted.

16.5 Budgeting and Tax Policy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Deficit: The amount by which spending exceeds revenue in one year.
Debt: The accumulated total of unpaid deficits.
Discretionary spending: Spending Congress must appropriate year by year.

Chapter 17

Foreign Policy

Read chapter 17 in the book

Summary

Foreign policy is the set of goals a state pursues toward other states, and the means it uses. Classic goals include security, prosperity, and the promotion of values. The tools include diplomacy, trade, foreign aid, sanctions, treaties, and military force. Hard power uses coercion or payment. Soft power attracts through culture, ideas, and legitimacy. The president leads, but the Senate must approve treaties by two-thirds and confirm ambassadors, and Congress holds the power to declare war and to fund the military. The War Powers Resolution is Congress’s attempt to limit undeclared wars.

Key terms

Key terms are grouped by the section that introduces them. The definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide.

Open this chapter’s key terms in the book

17.1 Defining Foreign Policy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Foreign policy: A state’s goals toward the outside world, and the means used to reach them.
Diplomacy: The conduct of relations with other countries by negotiation.

17.2 Foreign Policy Instruments

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Hard power: Influence through coercion or payment, including force and sanctions.
Soft power: Influence through attraction, culture, and legitimacy.
Treaty: A formal agreement that, under the Constitution, requires a two-thirds Senate vote.

17.3 Institutional Relations in Foreign Policy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Two presidencies thesis: The claim that presidents have more freedom in foreign policy than in domestic policy.
War Powers Resolution: A 1973 law that tries to limit the president’s use of force without Congress.

17.4 Approaches to Foreign Policy

These definitions stay with the OpenStax book under CC BY 4.0. They were not written for this guide. The link opens the section in the book.

Isolationism: A policy of avoiding lasting political or military commitments abroad.
Liberal internationalism: A policy of engagement through cooperation, trade, and institutions.
Containment: The Cold War strategy of limiting the expansion of a rival power.