Margins Study Assistant

Chapter 1

What Is Anthropology?

Summary

Anthropologists have developed four main approaches to pursuing anthropology’s common narrative, comprising the discipline’s four fields: biological anthropology, archaeology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic… Getting at that deeper understanding, anthropologists learn to recognize their own biases as forms of ethnocentrism such as primitivism and orientalism. Anthropology is an incredibly broad discipline, covering the entire scope of human experience, but its enormity is controlled by a common narrative and set of three central commitments. Effective holistic analysis requires a commitment to the method of cultural relativism, which requires a researcher to set aside their own personal values in order to appreciate another culture on its own terms.

Key terms

anthropology: the study of humanity across time and space
cultural relativism: understanding every element of culture within the broader whole of that culture. Cultural relativism highlights how each belief or practice is related to all of the other beliefs…
ethnocentrism: the notion that one’s own culture is so superior that no other culture is worth consideration. Ethnocentric people often imagine that the world would be a much better place if…
archaeology: the field of anthropology that relies on the excavation of artifacts and fossils to explore how environmental and historical conditions have produced a diversity of human cultures
biological anthropology: the field of anthropology that focuses on the earliest processes in the biological and sociocultural development of human beings as well as the biological diversity of…
cultural anthropology: the field of anthropology devoted to describing and understanding the wide variety of human cultures. Cultural anthropologists focus on such things as social thought, action…
orientalism: the depiction of some cultural groups, particularly people from the Middle East and Asia, as exotic, irrational, fanatical, and sensuous
primitivism: the depiction of some cultural groups, particularly Africans and Native Americans, as exotic, simple, highly sexual, potentially violent, and closer to nature

Chapter 2

Methods: Cultural and Archaeological

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Summary

Chapter 2 discusses how anthropologists gather information. All of the subfields of anthropology conduct fieldwork in some form to gather information, each subfield may use different methods of conducting research. The concept of working in “the field” was traditionally based on the practice of traveling to distant regions to study other cultures within their native environmental contexts. In recent decades, “the field” has broadened to include diverse settings such as one’s hometown (as in urban anthropology), the Internet (visual or virtual anthropology), or collections in university archives and…

Key terms

artifacts: objects that are portable and show evidence of human cultural activity; for example, bones that show evidence of drawings sketched on them, stone tools, pottery, etc
cross-cutting relationship: a principle in geology and archaeology that suggests that a geologic or cultural feature that cuts across another feature is the more recently deposited of the two
features: cultural structures found at an archaeological site that are not movable or portable, such as parts of a temple, altars, tombs, etc
law of superposition: the geological principle of stratigraphy that assumes that materials, normally rock layers, found beneath other materials are older that the materials on top
oral histories: histories of previous events, moral or ethical lessons, or stories of creation that are passed down by memorization. Many oral histories are also called mythologies, legends…
provenance: the location of an artifact when it is first found. The provenance is normally recorded when the artifact is in situ, or before it has been removed
qualitative data: nonnumerical data, such as language, feelings, or impressions, that is normally collected when the researcher is at the research site

Chapter 3

Culture Concept Theory: Theories of Cultural Change

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Summary

The discipline of anthropology is centered on the concept of culture. These elements combine in aggregates such as symbols, rituals, and social structures. While it is an incredibly useful tool for understanding human social life, the concept of culture is riddled with paradox. What we make, what we do, and what we think constitute the basic elements of culture.

Key terms

culture: the whole way of life of a society, combining material objects, technologies, social relationships, everyday practices, deeply held values, and shared ideas
ritual: repeated, patterned action conventionally associated with a particular meaning, often incorporating symbolic objects and actions
social structure: the organizational framework for a particular realm of culture, such as the family, the economy, or the political system. Social structures combine material culture with…
symbol: an object, image, or gesture conventionally associated with a particular meaning
discipline of anthropology: centered on the concept of culture
intellectual property: material and nonmaterial products of an individual or group that are protected by national and international laws and cannot be used for profit by others without attribution or…
norm: the cultural expectations, including behaviors and attributes, that are associated with a cultural role

Chapter 4

Biological Evolution and Early Human Evidence

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Summary

Natural selection depends on the evolutionary processes of mutation, speciation, gene flow, and genetic drift Charles Darwin was one of the first to propose a mechanism by which evolution occurred, which he called natural selection. The anthropological approach to exploring these questions is grounded in evolutionary theory. Natural selection is based on the premise that those with more favorable characteristics survive and reproduce at greater rates than those without them.

Key terms

evolution: changes that appear in a species over time. Evolution is dependent on genetic variation and natural selection to pass on beneficial traits that will increase survival of the…
natural selection: the process by which a species that is able to adapt and to pass on beneficial traits to its offspring ensures survival of the species; first formally introduced by Charles Darwin
gene flow: alteration of the frequencies of alleles in a population that results from interbreeding with organisms from another population
mutation: a change in the structure of a gene that results in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations
genetic drift: random changes in the frequencies of alleles in a gene pool
allele: an alternative form of a gene that arises by mutation and is found in the same place on a chromosome, directly impacting the expression of a genetic trait or phenotype
binomial nomenclature: the scientific naming system developed by Carolus Linnaeus that represents two parts of a taxonomic name. The name is italicized, the genus is always capitalized, and the species…
derived characteristics: physical traits that are present in related organisms but absent from their last common ancestor. They are often associated with a speciation event

Chapter 5

The Genus Homo and the Emergence of Us

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Summary

Genetic information provided by mtDNA indicates that all humans shared common ancestors who lived in Africa 200,000 years ago. Studies of genetics shows examples of coevolution and how even small organisms such as lice can shed light on the human story. The rise of agriculture created new challenges for humanity, with evolutionary mismatch still impacting people today. In this chapter we have explored our human journey as a member of the genus Homo , following a trail of adaptations and change that ultimately led to us .

Key terms

coevolution: an interaction between different species that influences each species’ evolution; the simplest case of this is predator-prey relationships
evolutionary mismatch: a hypothesis that disease and nutritional deficiencies result when people’s bodies are unable to adapt to an environment that they have not spent most of their evolutionary…
mtDNA: the DNA located in the mitochondria that can be passed down unchanged from female genetic contributor to child
Oldowan tool Industry: the oldest and most primitive tool industry; production and use are largely in association with H. habilis
postcranial features: skeletal material found in the body that is not related to the skull (cranial bones)
archaic Homo: the period of time that precedes the emergence of the earliest early modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) around 300,000 years ago
Broca’s area: a region in the frontal lobe of the brain (which includes two Brodmann areas) first found in H. habilis and connected with the production of speech
endocranial cast: an impression taken from the inside of the cranium (braincase), frequently used by paleoanthropologists to determine the shape and approximate size of the brain in hominids and…

Chapter 6

Language and Communication

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Summary

Human language differs from animal communication in its complexity and flexibility, aspects of human communication made possible by unique human biological and genetic features. The complexity of language makes it a powerful tool in shaping human thought, providing categories and metaphors for organizing our information about the world. The social aspects of language are particularly relative, influencing how children learn languages in various sociocultural contexts as well as how people use language to create speech communities. Language and culture are closely entwined in the evolutionary development and contemporary diversity of human societies.

Key terms

language: a complex, systematized form of communication involving the use of vocal or gestural units (words or signs) that can be combined and recombined in larger structures (sentences)…
communication: the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver; can be voluntary or involuntary, simple or complex
social aspects of language: particularly relative, influencing how children learn languages in various sociocultural contexts as well as how people use language to create speech communities
metaphor: a linguistic idiom using something concrete to think and talk about something more abstract
FOXP2: a gene on chromosome number seven that is found in many vertebrates; sometimes called “the language gene” because the human mutation seems to be associated with language
language ideologies: specific ideas about language that are widespread in a culture, including how language is acquired, how it varies across social groups, how it changes over time, etc
speech community: a community of speakers sharing a common grammar and vocabulary, as well as a set of understandings about how language is used in different situations
vernacular: dialects that are not necessarily regional but associated with specific social categories such as groups based on ethnicity, age, or gender

Chapter 7

Work, Life, and Value: Economic Anthropology

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Summary

Humans use four main modes of subsistence to meet their needs: gathering-hunting, pastoralism, plant cultivation, and industrialism. Plant cultivators are settled peoples who practice either extensive horticulture or intensive agriculture. In intensive agriculture and industrialism, the market economy based on money forms the dominant mode of exchange Anthropologists take a human-centered approach to studying economic issues, examining how social and cultural features relate to economic production, markets, and consumption.

Key terms

extensive horticulture: a form of plant cultivation in which new plots are regularly cleared, prepared with digging sticks or hoes, and fertilized with animal dung, ash, or other natural products
intensive agriculture: a form of plant cultivation in which one plot is farmed over and over again using labor-intensive methods such as plowing, terracing, and irrigation
gathering-hunting: the mode of subsistence in which people rely on resources readily available in their environment. Gathering-hunting peoples collect fruits, nuts, berries, and roots and harvest…
industrialism: the mode of subsistence that uses wage labor, machines, and chemical processes to mass-produce commodities
markets: institutions that allow for buyers and sellers to meet for the purposes of economic exchange
Bedouin: also mobile but allow for the accumulation of wealth in the form of herd animals
pastoralism: the mode of subsistence associated with the care and use of herd animals
cultivation: basic manipulation of nature, such as the intentional growing of plants

Chapter 8

Authority, Decisions, and Power: Political Anthropology

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Summary

In centralized societies such as chiefdoms and states, various forms of power are condensed in the formal hereditary role of the leader. Leaders in such societies have persuasive power but no formal means of enforcing their will. With social stratification and centralized rule, systems of ideology and hegemony develop to support the social order. All societies have ways of exercising authority, making decisions, and settling disputes.

Key terms

power: the ability to influence people and/or shape social processes and social structures
authority: the exercise of power based on expertise, charisma, or roles of leadership
chiefdoms: societies in which political leadership is regionally organized through an affiliation or hierarchy of chiefs. Chiefdoms are associated with intensive agriculture, militarism…
ideology: an organized set of ideas associated with a particular group or class in society. Ideologies are used to explain how various realms of nature and society work, including such…
lineage orders: societies in which extended family groups provide the primary means of social integration. Leadership in these societies is provided by elders and other temporary or situational…
centralized societies: communities in which power is concentrated in formal positions of authority, such as chiefs or kings
social stratification: the division of society into groups that are ranked according to wealth, power, or prestige
persuasive power: the ability to influence others without any formal means of enforcement

Chapter 9

Social Inequalities

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Summary

Division of labor , in and of itself, is not hierarchical, but when different values are assigned to different types of labor and some positions or people have power over others, this creates a hierarchy. A hierarchy is a type of social organization in which certain people or roles are given more power and prestige than others. Many gatherer-hunter groups experience a social structure described as egalitarian , in which the diverse roles in a system of production are all given the same decision-making power and accorded the same respect among… Conversely, when there are differences in status or power between various roles, social stratification results.

Key terms

egalitarian: describes a society or other group in which diverse roles are all given the same decision-making power and accorded the same respect among the group
hierarchy: a type of social organization in which certain people or roles are given more power and prestige than others
social stratification: the hierarchical organization of different groups of people, whether based on racial category, socioeconomic status, kinship, religion, birth order, or gender
power: the ability to exert control, authority, or influence over others
bourgeoisie: the class of people who own the means of production. Historically, the bourgeoisie were descendants of powerful feudal families
capitalism: an economic mode of production based around markets, ownership of land and resources, and wage labor. Capitalism has produced classes that are grounded in acceptance of the idea…
caste: a system of social inequality based on an individual’s circumstances of birth, wherein people are not allowed to move out of their social group
color blindness: the idea that people “don’t see color,” meaning that they are unaware of the ways in which someone may experience the world because of the color of their skin

Chapter 10

The Global Impact of Human Migration

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Summary

Historically, global forces have also contributed to migration, including seafaring explorations, colonialism, and the transatlantic slave trade that led to a diaspora (dispersal) of millions of African peoples into… Migration is an important characteristic of human behavior. People migrate for all sorts of reasons, moving from place to place in search of economic opportunities, refuge from political or social oppression, educational opportunities, health resources, fulfillment of family… From our earliest ancestral beginnings, humans have moved from place to place, sometimes on a seasonal basis and sometimes permanently

Key terms

migration: movement from one place to another that reestablishes a household, whether temporarily or permanently
diaspora: the movement and dispersal of large ethnic groups from their homelands because of warfare, institutionalized violence, or opportunity (usually education or employment)
forced labor: the recruitment, transportation, transfer, and/or harboring of persons by means of threat or use of force or coercion for the purpose of financial exploitation
cultural hybridity: the exchange and innovation within cultures that is a product of migration and globalization
postcolonialism: enduring politico-economic relationships between former colonizers and their former colonies that continue to have negative effects on the former colonies after independence
transnationalism: the construction of social, economic, and political networks that originate in one country and then cross or transcend nation-state boundaries
displacement: migration due to persecution, conflict, or violence; involves refugees and those seeking asylum
remittances: transfers of money from workers back to their home countries, usually for their families

Chapter 11

Forming Family through Kinship

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Summary

It defines the way an individual (EGO) fits within a larger kindred (depicted by terms of reference) and the rights and obligations that EGO has to these individuals (depicted by terms of address) Embedded within the larger kinship structure is the family, those believed to be related to each other and who have distinct rights and responsibilities to the family unit. As a sociocultural construction, it is defined differently across cultures to adapt to the specific needs of a society. While most of us think of kinship as a biological relationship, it is, in fact, a relationship defined by culture.

Key terms

family: two or more people in an adaptable social and economic alliance that involves kinship, whether perceived through blood, marriage, or other permanent or semipermanent arrangement
kinship: a web of relationships in which people consider themselves related to each other in a social and biological way
sociocultural construction: a concept that is defined according to social criteria (not biological) and varies across cultures
kindred: the sum of kinship relationships that is defined through EGO
terms of reference: the terms (words) that are used to refer to our kin
larger kinship structure: the family, those believed to be related to each other and who have distinct rights and responsibilities to the family unit
EGO: the starting point for the kinship chart; used to read relationships as alignments between EGO and other individuals
terms of address: the terms (words) we use to speak directly to our kin

Chapter 12

Gender and Sexuality

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Summary

The study of gender and sexuality also shows how power operates among the categories of gender, particularly through forms of gender ideology such as patriarchy. Gender and sexuality are complex and highly variable aspects of culture. Examining evidence from primates and humans as well as the archaeological record, anthropologists have concluded that humans are highly variable, capable of many expressions of gender and sexuality. A growing area of research considers the experiences of intersex persons as well as efforts by parents and doctors to assign gender in ambiguous situations.

Key terms

gender: a set of cultural identities, expressions and roles that are assigned to people, often based upon the interpretation of their bodies, and in some cases, their sexual and…
sexuality: erotic thoughts, desires, and practices and the sociocultural identities associated with them
sex: biological categories of male, female, and intersex
intersex: born with differences in sex characteristics or chromosomes that do not fall within typical conceptions of male or female
gender ideology: a coordinated set of ideas about gender categories, relations, behaviors, norms, and ideals
patriarchy: a widespread gender ideology that positions men as rulers of private and public life
essentialism: a sense that some trait is so profoundly deep and consequential that it creates a common identity for everyone who has that trait
gay: people whose enduring physical, romantic, and/ or emotional attractions are to people of the same sex or gender; usually refers to men who are attracted to other men, but may…

Chapter 13

Religion and Culture

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Summary

Nones, agnostics, and atheists do have worldviews particular to their cultures, and they sometimes also have spiritual beliefs Witchcraft and sorcery became part of religion as it evolved to adapt to world populations. Religion is found across all cultures, and yet it can be difficult to define. French sociologist Émile Durkheim used an empirical definition, identifying religion as an institution related to “sacred things,” with beliefs, practices, and a social organization.

Key terms

religion: a shared system of beliefs and practices that are highly regarded in society. Most often, religion is focused on the interaction of natural and supernatural phenomena
witchcraft: a practice involving the use of intangible means to cause a change in circumstances to another person
spirit: supernatural being associated with specific activities, such as an earth spirit or guardian spirit (or angel)
worldview: a specific outlook or orientation that an individual or group of individuals holds on the nature of the world
sorcery: a practice involving the use of material elements to cause a change in circumstances to another person
symbol: something that stands arbitrarily for something else and has no natural connection to its referent
none: a person with no religious affiliation
animism: a worldview in which there is believed to be spiritual agency in all things, including natural elements such as rocks and trees

Chapter 14

Anthropology of Food

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Summary

The study of early human diets is important for understanding the evolution of humans, and archaeologists use various kinds of evidence to determine early foodways, from material artifacts such as food utensils to food… Today, Indigenous groups such as the Cherokee are incorporating traditional foodways in cultural revitalization efforts, negotiating with the government to protect their ability to harvest wild foods on ancestral lands Many anthropologists take a biocultural approach to the study of food, examining the biological/nutritional role of food and its connection to identity. Sustainable farming techniques, many of them grounded in traditional practices, typically produce higher food yields, reduce fertilizer costs, build healthier soils, and avoid genetically modified plants.

Key terms

food: a substance eaten for the purpose of nutrition and/or social status
study of early human diets: important for understanding the evolution of humans, and archaeologists use various kinds of evidence to determine early foodways, from material artifacts such as food ut
Cherokee: incorporating traditional foodways in cultural revitalization efforts, negotiating with the government to protect their ability to harvest wild foods on ancestral lands
foodways: the collection, production, and consumption of food; how culinary traditions shape cultural identity
biocultural approach: a perspective that looks at both the cultural and biological roles that food plays in human lives
genetically modified plants: plants whose DNA has been altered through human intervention
heirloom seeds: seeds that are not genetically modified, are open pollinated, and have been in existence for at least 50 years
food proscriptions: foods that are prohibited and are not considered proper as food; also called food taboos

Chapter 15

Anthropology of Media

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Summary

Digital media construct entirely new forms of sociality, including illicit shadow forms of impersonation and scamming such as sakawa Anthropologists studying news media focus on the construction of national public spheres of official ideology and political contest. Anthropologists use long-term ethnographic fieldwork and holistic perspectives to study media genres such as photography, film, radio, television, and digital media. In visual anthropology, gaze theory is used to think about the relationship between viewers and the people depicted in photographs, particularly in terms of gender, power, and cultural identity.

Key terms

media: tools for storing and sharing information
public sphere: a domain of social life in which people represent, learn about, and discuss the important issues of the day
sociality: participation in social relations; how people construct and maintain their personal and group relationships
visual anthropology: the use of visual media as a method of research or its study as a topic of research
sakawa: magically enhanced Internet fraud, mainly targeting foreigners
ethnographic film: the use of film in ethnographic research, either as a method, a record, or a means of reporting on anthropological fieldwork
state media: forms of print and broadcast media that are financially supported by the state and subject to government control
community radio: radio stations that are community owned and operated, staffed by groups of professionals and volunteers

Chapter 16

Art, Music, and Sport

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Summary

The anthropology of the arts is a subfield of cultural anthropology that explores the arts in a broader context within and between different cultural settings. Art, music, and sports are deeply intertwined with the human experience. Anthropology offers the space to examine art, music, and sports through a cultural lens in order to study the ways in which they exist within sociocultural frameworks Anthropologists study art differently than other social scientist, relying on data collection through direct, personal, in-depth observations of lived experiences and interactions.

Key terms

art: the application of human creative skill and imagination to produce works intended to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power, typically but not exclusively…
anthropology of the arts: a subfield of cultural anthropology that explores the arts in a broader context within and between different cultural settings
meme: an image, video, piece of text, etc., typically humorous in nature, that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users, often with slight variations
tattooing: a form of body art where a mark, symbol, picture or design is placed on the skin. Tattooing has been practiced for thousands of years
cultural appropriation: the adoption, usually without acknowledgment, of cultural identity markers from subcultures or minority communities into mainstream culture by people with a relatively privileged…
iconographic study: the study of visual images, symbols, or modes of representation collectively associated with a person, cult, or movement
graffiti: drawings, depictions, and writings on a wall typically without permission and meant for the public to see
rezball: short for reservation ball, a style of basketball played in Native American reservation communities

Chapter 17

Medical Anthropology

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Summary

Medical anthropologists thus try to study medicine and health within the context of the culture it comes from, which is known as ethnomedicine. It considers how culture affects medicine and health. The history of medical anthropology stems from numerous other branches of anthropology, including religious anthropology and the study of rituals and health. Since World War II, anthropologists have often been involved in health initiatives around the world, with numerous health practitioners using anthropological methods to increase their efficacy

Key terms

participant observation: a methodology in which the anthropologist makes first-person observations while participating in a culture
ethnomedicine: a culture’s traditional knowledge and treatments for the management of health and illness
health: a state of complete well-being
social health: an acknowledgement that one’s social interactions and standing are an important aspect of overall health
biocultural approach: the assumption that culture is informed by physical and sociocultural elements
anorexia nervosa: a culture-bound syndrome present in North American and European cultures, characterized by a person not eating to meet beauty standards
cultural systems model: a theory that analyzes how systems within a particular culture, including health care systems, affect one’s worldview and actions
medical statistics: statistics regarding treatments for medical illnesses that inform an anthropologist’s study, as well as medical policy and health choices

Chapter 18

Human-Animal Relationship

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Summary

Human-animal scholars often use a research approach known as multispecies ethnography as a way of understanding the symbiosis between humans and animals While it may be difficult to define an animal, and sometimes controversial to speak the scientific truth that human are animals, too, the continuum between us and them is incontrovertible. Animals play essential roles in many areas of human life. In describing animals, anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss said that they are “good to think” of (1963, 89) because they show up prolifically in our cultures.

Key terms

animal: a multicellular organism, either vertebrate or invertebrate, that can breathe, move, ingest, excrete, and sexually reproduce
multispecies ethnography: the study of the interactions between humans and other species within their shared environment
symbiosis: a mutually beneficial relationship between species
culture hero: an idealized animal or human figure associated with supernatural feats. A culture hero is particular to their cultural group, exhibiting specific traits, actions, and discoveries…
nomadic pastoralism: herding that is based on the availability of environmental resources; involves unpredictable movements, as herders decide from day to day where they will go next
trickster: an animal spirit deity who is very lively and clever and gets into trouble through thoughtless or unconventional actions
anthropocentrism: the belief that the human perspective is the most important one; also called human exceptionalism

Chapter 19

Indigenous Anthropology

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Summary

The issues faced by these people are similar to those faced by Indigenous peoples around the world, including a history of colonization, removal from traditional lands to reservations, signing away land and rights in… Indigenous peoples in the United States today have lived through a long period of cultural collapse and are subject to extreme competition for land, rights, and resources.

Key terms

assimilation: the process of changing the culture of a person or group of people to some other culture, through socialization or education
Indigenous peoples: the original populations of a land and those who carry culture and experiences from an Indigenous culture. Indigenous peoples may also be referred to as Native peoples, tribal…
reservations: lands given to Indigenous tribes as supposedly permanent places for their communities to live and practice their culture, usually through treaty or executive order
issues faced by these people: similar to those faced by Indigenous peoples around the world, including a history of colonization, removal from traditional lands to reservations, signing away land and
blood quantum: a term first applied by the US federal government to determine which people had rights to services and land at reservations. The term has become a characteristic to define who is…
Indian mascots: characterizations of a Native person or group used to represent athletic teams, often portraying savage or cartoonish stereotypes. The practice is considered highly racist toward…
Marshall court trilogy: three Supreme Court decisions— Johnson v. M’Intosh (1823), Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), and Worcester v. Georgia (1832)—that determined that tribal nations are domestic…
termination: a US federal policy adopted in 1953 that involved voiding the treaty agreements between the federal government and Native peoples, enabling the government to repossess and sell…

Chapter 20

Anthropology on the Ground

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Summary

The diverse ways in which we humans have solved or managed the challenges of our lives are a rich storehouse for our future. Three of the challenges are major actions areas for philanthropic organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: climate change, gender inequality and gender-based violence, and global health. The term ethnosphere , first coined by Canadian cultural anthropologist Wade Davis, refers to the sum total of all human knowledge across time—the human cultural legacy. As a discipline, anthropology includes academic and applied aspects that focus on, respectively, developing new theories and solving practical problems.

Key terms

challenges: major actions areas for philanthropic organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation: climate change, gender inequality and gender-based violence, and global
ethnosphere: the sum total of all of human knowledge across time
challenges of our lives: a rich storehouse for our future
values: principles and standards of behavior that are considered important
asset: a tool or condition that can be harnessed to increase value and effect positive change
biodiversity: the variety of plants and animals that exist on Earth and form a living ecosystem