Chapter 1

Structure and Function of the Nervous System: Cells and Anatomy

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Summary

The basic cellular building blocks of the nervous system are neurons and glia. While sharing all features of eukaryotic cells, including membrane bound organelles and the central dogma, neurons and glia differ in some important ways that allow them to serve the functions of the nervous system. Glia serve in a number of support roles that are vital for neurons, including signaling. Nervous systems vary across the animal kingdom in design and complexity.

Chapter 2

Neurophysiology

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Summary

Neurons are bilingual, using two inter-related but distinct signaling systems. Communication between neurons primarily uses the ancient language of chemical and receptor that all your cells use, though with adaptations for highly targeted and reliable communication. Grafted onto this ancient system is an electrical signaling system that transfers information within a neuron with a level of speed and precision that is relatively unique to the animal kingdom. An engineer probably wouldn’t have designed such a complex system.

Chapter 3

Basic Neurochemistry

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Summary

The function of these neurotransmitters is determined by the region of the brain they innervate, the type and location of the receptor, and the nature of the mechanisms induced by the receptor. The brain obtains lipids, amino acids, and sugars from the metabolism of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates from the diet. Neurons modify these precursor molecules enzymatically into neurotransmitters, store them inside small lipid-walled vesicles and maintain them until the neuron determines that they should be released. The arrival of an action potential induces the neuron to release its neurotransmitter(s) into the synaptic cleft so that it can interact with specialized receptor proteins floating on the surface of a nearby neuron.

Key terms

function of these neurotransmitters

determined by the region of the brain they innervate, the type and location of the receptor, and the nature of the mechanisms induced by the receptor

Chapter 4

Comparative Neuroscience

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Summary

The choice of model organisms is based on behavioral characteristics, breeding, ease of handling and/or exceptional abilities. Animal models are used to understand biological phenomena and behaviors that can be applied to a broad range of species. Animal research must follow strict guidelines and be approved by an ethics committee called IACUC. While animal models have a proven track record in saving human lives, there are emerging alternatives such as organoids that may reduce the need for animal testing

Key terms

choice of model organisms

based on behavioral characteristics, breeding, ease of handling and/or exceptional abilities

Chapter 5

Neurodevelopment

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Summary

The cells of the brain are produced from neural stem cells that occupy the neural tube and differentiate into neurons and glia. Brain segmentation is controlled at the level of gene expression and can be subject to disease through both abnormal gene expression and environmental exposures. Some of these cells, such as glutamatergic cortical neurons, produce a layered structure using an inside-out pattern. These mechanisms produce a fundamental unit that will have tremendous plasticity to sense and respond to the environment during both subsequent prenatal and postnatal development

Key terms

cells of the brain

produced from neural stem cells that occupy the neural tube and differentiate into neurons and glia

Chapter 6

Vision

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Summary

Light reflected from surfaces is imaged by the eye’s optical system, the cornea and lens, onto the retina at the back of the eye, where photoreceptors detect photons of light energy. In the first steps in vision, rods and cones capture photons to create an electrical signal that is proportional to the number of photons captured. This process, called "phototransduction," is unusual in that the receptors are depolarized in the dark but become less depolarized (hyperpolarized) in the light. When visual pigment molecules capture photons, it leads to a reduction in the concentration of a signaling molecule, cGMP, which when present activates Na+ channels to allow Na+ ions to enter the photoreceptors and…

Key terms

receptors

depolarized in the dark but become less depolarized (hyperpolarized) in the light

Chapter 7

Hearing and Balance

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Summary

Understanding the different ways sounds are generated and how sound waves interact with the physical environment lays the groundwork for examining how the ear senses sound and how the brain processes acoustic information Hearing is a critical sense that allows animals to detect objects and events in their environments. It is based on the perception of sound, acoustic pressure waves that travel through the air. In terrestrial vertebrates, acoustic signals are sensed by the ear.

Key terms

different ways sounds

generated and how sound waves interact with the physical environment lays the groundwork for examining how the ear senses sound and how the brain processes acoustic infor

Chapter 8

The Chemical Senses

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Summary

The anatomical and molecular differences between the vertebrate and insect gustatory systems are vast, but what is truly astounding are the commonalities between animals. All animals rely on the chemical senses for their ability to survive and proliferate. Gustation alerts us to toxic or hazardous compounds in our foods, while at the same time evaluating their nutritional content. Olfaction works in concert with taste to help us locate and recognize food sources.

Key terms

vertebrate and insect gustatory systems

vast, but what is truly astounding are the commonalities between animals

Chapter 9

Touch and Pain

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Summary

The emotional experience of pain is contributed to significantly by the limbic system structures, which also play a critical role in the regulation of our emotions, such as depression. This section summarizes the neural structures in the peripheral sensory system as the starting point to receive, transduce, and propagate various modalities of somatosensory information to the central nervous system. Understanding various types of sensory receptors, their axon types, cell body location, and major neurotransmitters used will provide a solid foundation for understanding at the next level of neural transmission, the… This section covers the anatomical organization of the spinal cord, pathways to the brainstem and thalamus, and the primary somatosensory cortex, in addition to the gate control system, descending inhibitory system…

Key terms

emotional experience of pain

contributed to significantly by the limbic system structures, which also play a critical role in the regulation of our emotions, such as depression

Chapter 10

Motor Control

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Summary

Effector skeletal muscles move limbs and body parts in desired directions by pulling in a coordinated manner, typically in conjunction with antagonistic partners pulling in opposite directions. To accomplish the pulling, motor neurons synapsing at neuromuscular junctions initiate contractions. Depolarization derived from ACh opening nicotinic ionotropic receptors filters through the muscle fiber from the sarcolemma into the inner core where myofibrils reside, releasing calcium from storage in the… This calcium initiates and maintains a contractile machinery where myosin heads extending from thick filaments pull actin chains inward by forming cross-links and cocking inward, then releasing and re-binding with…

Chapter 11

Sexual Behavior and Development

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Summary

Additionally, we examined intersexual competition, where mate choice drives the evolution of traits that are attractive to the opposite sex, such as elaborate plumage or intricate courtship behaviors. We also learned that many times, animals engage in sexual behavior without the intent of reproduction, and that same-sex sexual behavior is widespread in nature. We then discussed how the initial reproductive investment of each sex, such as the larger, more energetically costly eggs produced by females compared to the smaller, less costly sperm produced by males, can lead to… We also explored the dynamics of intrasexual competition, where individuals of the same sex compete for access to mates, often resulting in the development of traits like larger body size or aggressive behaviors.

Chapter 12

Stress

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Summary

The slower neuroendocrine response depends upon the HPA axis and is important for the long-term effects of the stress response as well as various other bodily functions. The stress response is a non-specific physiological reaction to any event (stressor) that takes an organism out of homeostatic range. The stress response follows an inverted-U pattern: too little or too much stress is deleterious to behavioral performance but there is an optimal level that is beneficial. The stress response depends on multiple interconnected systems working on different timescales.

Key terms

stress response

a non-specific physiological reaction to any event (stressor) that takes an organism out of homeostatic range

HPA axis and

important for the long-term effects of the stress response as well as various other bodily functions

fast neural response

mediated by the SNS via the sympatho-neural system and sympatho-adrenomedullary system

Chapter 13

Emotion and Mood

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Summary

This view was advanced by Magda Arnold, Richard Lazarus and other appraisal theorists who suggested a range or dimensions that are evaluated during the appraisal process to ultimately determine which emotions are… Five theories of emotion were presented that emphasized the idea of subjective feelings of emotions emerging from interactions between the environment or exteroceptive stimuli and internal physiological changes, that… The collective theories agree on the essential nature of the three components for emotions to develop. However, they each propose a different sequence or order in which sensory and brain appraisal processes lead to an awareness of personal subjective feelings.

Chapter 14

Psychopharmacology

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Summary

Factors such as the route of administration and the rate of absorption, metabolism, and excretion can impact the ultimate concentration of a drug that ends up in the circulatory system. Drugs that can cross the blood-brain barrier can interact with neurotransmitters and receptors in the brain through a variety of mechanisms that can ultimately impact neuronal signaling. Understanding the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profile of drugs is essential for predicting their effects on mood, cognition and behavior Psychotherapeutics are prescription drugs used for the treatment of mental disorders.

Chapter 15

Biological Rhythms and Sleep

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Summary

Endogenous biological rhythms are found in nearly every organism on the planet. Internal clocks can help an organism anticipate changes in their environment. There are many types of biological rhythms that can range from seconds to hours to years; circadian rhythms are those that take about 24 hours to complete a cycle. We can characterize the components of a rhythm by analyzing their period, phase, amplitude, mesor and frequency.

Chapter 16

Homeostasis

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Summary

Many homeostatic systems throughout the body are regulated by the nervous system. The challenge for neuroscientists interested in studying the neurobiology of homeostasis is to understand the specific sensors, control centers, and effectors that regulate each life-sustaining factor Animals maintain a stable internal environment through the process of homeostasis. Life-sustaining factors, such as oxygen, temperature, food, and water, are maintained at optimal set-points for each organism.

Key terms

body

regulated by the nervous system

Chapter 17

Neuroimmunology

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Summary

The immune system is broadly divided into innate and adaptive responses. The immune system uses a diverse army of signaling molecules called cytokines and chemokines to communicate among its distinct cell types, as well as with the nervous and endocrine systems. The brain was once thought to be completely separate from the immune system, but we now know that it has its own resident immune cells- microglia- and likely is more exposed to peripheral immune cells than originally… Innate responses are rapid, non-specific, and stereotyped, meaning that they occur in more or less the same pattern and intensity each time a pathogen or antigen is encountered.

Key terms

immune system

broadly divided into innate and adaptive responses

Chapter 18

Learning and Memory

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Summary

Once memories are encoded, they need to be stabilized in a time-sensitive process known as consolidation, but even then, the memories are not solidified; memories are vulnerable to disruption every time they are… Implicit memories are memories that are formed without our conscious awareness. Implicit memories can be categorized into associative memories, including classical and operant conditioning, and nonassociative memories, including habitation and sensitization. Memory has many different categories that are supported by distinct brain regions.

Chapter 19

Attention and Executive Function

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Summary

The concepts of arousal, vigilance, and selective attention are all tightly related aspects of our brain’s ability to bring certain pieces of information into conscious awareness and maintain that information over time. When considering selective attention more closely, we start to see the complexities involved in shifting the focus of our awareness, and to appreciate how those shifts involve a number of factors, including the degree… Attentional mechanisms exist across much of the brain, including brainstem and subcortical structures involved in general arousal, cortical networks for voluntary and reflexive shifts of attention in the dorsal and… Unattended sources of information do not benefit from the same enhanced processing as attended sources, but they are nevertheless processed by the relevant sensory systems in the brain.