Chapter 1

Introduction to Philosophy

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Summary

Particularly in Greece, the sage tradition blends into a period of natural philosophy, where ancient scientists or philosophers try to explain nature using rational methods The word “philosophy” derives from ancient Greek, in which the philosopher is a lover or pursuer ( philia ) of wisdom ( sophia ). The earliest Greek philosophers were not known as philosophers; they were simply known as sages. The sage tradition is a largely prehistoric tradition that provides a narrative about how intellect, wisdom, piety, and virtue lead to the innovations central to the flourishing of ancient civilizations.

Key terms

Philosophy

the “love of wisdom.” An academic discipline that attempts to grasp the broadest possible understanding of things. It is characterized by rational explanation and a willingness…

sage tradition

a largely prehistoric tradition that provides a narrative about how intellect, wisdom, piety, and virtue lead to the innovations central to the flourishing of ancient civ

Sage

a wise person. Many ancient cultures designated important wise figures as “sages.”

philosopher

a lover or pursuer ( philia ) of wisdom ( sophia )

Ahimsa

one of the highest virtues of classical Indian religions. It is the practice of refraining from harming other living things

Predicate

the portion of a sentence that provides the description or characterization of an object or name. (A philosophical predicate is different from the predicate of grammar, and their…

Intuition

certain and evident cognition; the kind of knowledge that is so clear that it seems impossible for it to be false

Coherence

a situation in which it is possible for a set of beliefs or statements to be true at the same time

Chapter 2

Critical Thinking, Research, Reading, and Writing

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Summary

The relationship between mind and brain is one of the central problems of metaphysics, known as the “mind-body problem.” The mind-body problem is the problem of understanding the relationship between the organic gray… Our brains facilitate our survival and promote our ability to find a partner and reproduce by using thought, calculation, prediction, and inference. Biology does not tell us what the relationship is between our private mental life and the neurological, electrochemical interactions that take place in the brain It can be helpful to use the resources of psychology and cognitive science (the study of the brain’s processes) to help us understand how to become better thinkers.

Key terms

relationship between mind and brain

one of the central problems of metaphysics, known as the “mind-body problem.” The mind-body problem is the problem of understanding the relationship between the organic g

Cognitive bias

a systematic pattern of reasoning that deviates from a rationally optimal or logical judgment based on available facts and probabilities

Cognitive science

the study of the brain and the mechanisms underlying thought, perception, memory, emotion, and other functions of the brain

Inference

the mental process that leads from one set of information (premises, data, or information) to another (a conclusion, construction, or projection)

relationship

between our private mental life and the neurological, electrochemical interactions that take place in the brain

Dialectic

a method of discovering truth that comes from dialogue and uses the exchange of different points of view to arrive at a position that is more likely to be true

Gambler’s fallacy

the reasoning that holds that if a chance event has happened less frequently in the recent past, it is more likely to happen in the near future (or vice versa)

Heuristics

mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that provide a method of problem-solving that is not necessarily optimal but is efficient

Chapter 3

The Early History of Philosophy around the World

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Summary

In Greek, this movement is described as a move from mythos to logos, where mythos signifies the supernatural stories we tell, while logos signifies the rational, logical, and scientific stories we tell. Rather than seeing a decisive break from mythological thinking to rational thinking, we should understand the transition from mythos to logos as a gradual, uneven, and zig-zagging progression The Aztec had a highly developed epistemology that grounded truth within an understanding of an individual’s character and recognized the fundamental and total character of the universe as a godlike force or energy When humans shift from religious answers to questions about purpose and meaning to more naturalistic and logical answers, they move from the realm of myth to reason.

Key terms

Epistemology

the study of knowledge, involving questions such as how humans know what they know, what is the nature of true knowledge, and what are the limits to what humans can know

Mythos

a way of thinking that relies on the folk knowledge and narratives that often form part of the spiritual beliefs of a people

Logos

a way of thinking that rationally analyzes abstract concepts and phenomena independent of accepted belief systems

Li

rituals and practice that develop a person’s ethical character as they interact with others

Confucianism

a normative moral theory developed in ancient China during the Warring States period that proposes that the development of individual character is key to the achievement of an…

Wuwei

a natural way of acting that is spontaneous or immediate, in which a person’s actions are in harmony with the flow of nature or existence

Junzi

in Confucianism, a person who is an exemplary ethical figure and lives according to the dao

Codices

singular codex ; Maya books that transmitted the collective mathematical, scientific, historical, religious, and metaphysical knowledge of the Maya

Chapter 4

The Emergence of Classical Philosophy

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Summary

The presentist approach to the history of philosophy examines philosophical texts for the arguments they contain and judges whether their conclusions remain relevant for philosophical concerns today. A contextualist approach interprets philosophy in terms of the historical and cultural contexts in which it was written. A hermeneutic approach attempts to take the best of the presentist and contextualists approaches, viewing the historical context of original texts seriously but also recognizing that our interpretation of history is… Scholars adopt three main approaches to the history of philosophy.

Key terms

Contextualist approach

an approach to the philosophy that interprets the ideas of philosophers in terms of the historical and cultural contexts in which they wrote

Hermeneutic approach

an approach to philosophy that takes the historical context of the original text seriously but also recognizes the influence of contemporary issues and perspectives

Presentist approach

an approach to philosophy that examines philosophical texts for the arguments they contain and judges how and whether they remain relevant today

Theory of the forms

a metaphysical doctrine that holds that every particular thing that exists in our changing, material world participates in an immaterial form or essence, which is unchanging…

Logos

the thoughts of God, which according to Philo of Alexandria serve as the means by which God creates the physical world

Zeno’s paradoxes

paradoxes proposed by Zeno that attempt to prove that change and motion are illusory

Empiricism

a belief that all knowledge is derived inductively from sense experience

Plurism

the belief that the universe is made up of more than one substance

Chapter 5

Logic and Reasoning

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Summary

There are laws of logic—the law of noncontradiction and the law of the excluded middle. Arguments are reasons offered in support of a conclusion. Logic is the study of reasoning and is a key tool for discovering truth in philosophy and other disciplines. Early forms of arguments are evident in written dialogues.

Key terms

Conclusion

the result of an argument. A conclusion is that which is meant to be proved by the reasoning and premises used in an argument

Contradiction

a statement that is always false. A contradiction is the conjunction of any statement and its negation

Law of the excluded middle

a logical law that states that for any statement, either that statement or its negation is true

Law of noncontradiction

a logical law that states that contradictory statements/propositions can never be true in the same sense at the same time

study of reasoning and

a key tool for discovering truth in philosophy and other disciplines

Argument

a set of reasons offered in support of a conclusion

Abductive

having to do with abduction/abductive reasoning. Abduction is probabilistic form of inference in which an explanation is offered to justify and explain evidence

Conditional

a logical statement that expresses a necessary and a sufficient condition. Conditionals are usually formulated as if-then statements

Chapter 6

Metaphysics

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Summary

There are different answers to the question “What is the self?” The Judeo-Christian view tends to posit the “really real,” or the true self, in terms of a soul. Hindu and Buddhist views identify the self with the “atman.” Atman is an ancient term and has many meanings, but typically the term is translated as eternal self, soul, or even breath. The Latin term substantia, translated as “substance,” is often used to refer to the basic reality supporting or standing under features that are incidental to that same thing. Unlike in the Judeo-Christian view, the soul is reincarnated until the self attains release from reincarnation ( moksha ).

Key terms

Metaphysics

the field of philosophy concerned with identifying that which is real

self with the “atman.” Atman

an ancient term and has many meanings, but typically the term is translated as eternal self, soul, or even breath

Substance

the most enduring and underlying reality of a thing; from the Latin substantiaI or that which supports a thing

question “What

the self?” The Judeo-Christian view tends to posit the “really real,” or the true self, in terms of a soul

Anatman

a Buddhist concept of the self as no-self (as not retaining identity through time)

soul

reincarnated until the self attains release from reincarnation ( moksha )

Libertarianism

within the problem of freedom, the view that human actions are freely chosen and outside of the causality that governs natural objects

Compatibilism

the view that a lack of freedom for the human moral agent is compatible with moral culpability for that same agent

Chapter 7

Epistemology

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Summary

Traditional epistemology focuses on propositional knowledge, which is knowledge of facts or statements. There are other types of knowledge, including procedural knowledge and knowledge by acquaintance. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and its associated concepts, such as truth and justification. The discipline of epistemology uses many tools, including conceptual analysis, argumentation, and research.

Key terms

Epistemology

the field within philosophy that focuses on questions pertaining to the nature and extent of human knowledge

Gettier case

a case, usually presented as a hypothetical scenario, that acts as a counterexample to the traditional account of knowledge as justified true belief

Statement

A declarative sentence that has a truth value, meaning that it must be either true or false

Knowledge by acquaintance

knowledge gained from direct contact with something and not mediated by inference

Propositional knowledge

knowledge of facts that can be expressed as statements

Procedural knowledge

knowledge of how to successfully complete a task

Testimonial injustice

a type of epistemic injustice that occurs when the opinions of individuals or groups are unfairly ignored or treated as untrustworthy

Coherentism

the theory that a belief is justified if it is part of a coherent system of interconnected beliefs

Chapter 8

Value Theory

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Summary

The naturalistic fallacy is an error in reasoning that assumes we can derive values (what we ought to do) from facts about the world (what is the case). The fact-value distinction distinguishes between what is the case (facts) and what we think ought to be the case (values) based on beliefs about what is good, beautiful, important, etc. Descriptive claims are statements about matters of fact, whereas evaluative claims express a judgment about something’s value. Descriptive claims make statements about how the world is.

Key terms

Value theory

the philosophical investigation of values. In its narrow sense, it refers to metaethical concerns. In its broader sense, it addresses a variety of values (ethical, social…

Fact-value distinction

the distinction between what is the case (facts) and what people think ought to be the case (values) based on beliefs about what is good, beautiful, important, etc

Is-ought problem

problem that asserts the challenge of moving from statements of fact (something is ) to statements of value (something ought to be)

Naturalistic fallacy

an error in reasoning that assumes one can derive values (what people ought to do) from facts about the world (what is the case)

Descriptive claims

statements that describe matters of fact or how the world is

Values

beliefs and evaluations about morality, politics, aesthetics, and social issues. They often express a judgment about what people think ought to be the case

Reason

a methodical way of thinking that uses evidence and logic to draw conclusions, or the capacity to think this way

Fallacy

an error in logical reasoning—for example, jumping to a conclusion without proper evidence

Chapter 9

Normative Moral Theory

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Summary

It is commonly divided into three main areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics, each of which is distinguished by a different level of inquiry. A normative moral theory is a systematized account of morality that addresses important questions related to effectively guiding moral conduct. Consequentialism is the view that the rightness of an action is determined by its consequences.

Key terms

normative moral theory

a systematized account of morality that addresses important questions related to effectively guiding moral conduct

ren

a central concept in Confucianism that is used to mean either someone with complete virtue or to refer to specific virtues

consequentialism

a moral theory that looks at an action’s outcome or consequences to determine whether it is morally right

Warring States period

a period of widespread conflict, suffering, and social unrest in Chinese history that gave rise to highly influential philosophical approaches, including Mohism, Confucianism…

applied ethics

a branch of ethics that focuses on the application of moral norms to determine the permissibility of specific actions

Mohism

a type of consequentialism established in ancient China by Mozi (ca. 430 BCE) during the Warring States period

Li

ritual and practice that develop a person’s ethical character as they interact with others

normative ethics

a branch of ethics that focuses on establishing norms and standards of moral conduct

Chapter 10

Applied Ethics

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Summary

Important contemporary ethical issues in bioethics include abortion, euthanasia, and clinical trials. Environmental ethics is an area of applied ethics that attempts to rethink our relationship to the natural world and identify right conduct in our dealings with the nonhuman world. This section explores important aspects of environmental ethics like the political and legal dimensions, the value of nature, deep ecology, social ecology, and inequalities in environmental impact globally Bioethics studies ethical issues that emerge with advances in biology, technology, and medicine.

Key terms

Applied ethics

an area of ethics that focuses on the application of moral norms and principles to controversial issues to determine the rightness of specific actions

Deep ecology

an approach to environmental ethics that assumes all living things are valuable in their own right and not only because of their usefulness

Euthanasia

means “good death” and refers to the ending of a human life to avoid suffering

Clinical trials

trials designed to test new medical interventions and establish a drug’s dosage, determine possible side effects, and demonstrate efficacy

Environmental ethics

an area of applied ethics that attempts to rethink our relationship to the natural world and identify right conduct in our dealings with the nonhuman world

Bioethics

a field that studies ethical issues that emerge with advances in biology, technology, and medicine

Personhood

the capacity humans possess that distinguish them as beings capable of morality

Shareholders

individuals who own a share of a corporation

Chapter 11

Political Philosophy

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Summary

In Plato’s imagined city, the most just city is one in which each member of society occupies the social role they are the best equipped for based on their talents. Early political philosophers were concerned with ideas of justice and how best to ensure the most virtuous city. The city is governed by guardians, who are trained from infancy to protect the needs of the society, with the wisest and most virtuous of these becoming philosopher-kings, the natural rulers. Al-Farabi’s supreme ruler is the founder of the city—not an historical founder, but rather one who possesses both practical and theoretical knowledge and is not bound by any precedent or prior authority.

Key terms

Political philosophy

the branch of philosophy that investigates concepts of justice and legitimacy as well as the relationships among political systems, governments, and the people

city

governed by guardians, who are trained from infancy to protect the needs of the society, with the wisest and most virtuous of these becoming philosopher-kings, the natura

most just city

one in which each member of society occupies the social role they are the best equipped for based on their talents

Divine rule

a doctrine of political authority in which the legitimacy of the monarch or ruler is derived from the will of the divine

Veil of ignorance

an imagined scenario in which a person deliberately remains unaware of any personal traits and does not know what social, political, or economic group they are in

Negative liberty

a state in which one is neither constrained to act nor obligated to refrain from acting in a specific way

Egalitarianism

the notion that all individuals enjoy equal status and moral worth and that any legitimate system of government should reflect this in its policies and procedures

Mohism

the philosophy of the Chinese philosopher Mozi or the teachings of the Mozi , a book thought to be a collection of writings by followers of Mozi’s teachings

Chapter 12

Contemporary Philosophies and Social Theories

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Summary

Enlightenment thinkers proposed that human reason, coupled with empirical study of the physical world, would lead to progress—the advancement of science and the improvement of the human condition. Kant proposed that reason alone could guide individuals to identify ethical codes. The application of reason, in this way, would usher the human race toward a moral society in which each individual could enjoy the greatest freedom. However, this work of reasoning out the moral code could not be carried out by individuals but societies over a period of generations.

Key terms

Post-structuralism

views supporting the idea that the world cannot be interpreted through preexisting structures because there are no such existing structures; the idea that the universe is a…

Postmodernism

the philosophical perspective that there is no absolute truth to the universe, leaving no grand objective narratives to categorize and structure the world (as in modernism) but…

Psychoanalysis

the attempt to cure mental illnesses by uncovering the unconscious elements that are said to be the foundation of human behavior

Self-criticism

term for a method of public self-analysis proposed by Mao Tse-Tung as a means to achieve personal and societal improvement

Semiotics

an analysis of how meaning is created through symbols, both linguistic and nonlinguistic

Communicative action

a term coined by Jürgen Habermas to refer to open discussion within a public forum, with the potential to change political systems and societies

Critical pedagogy

the application of the insights of critical theory to pedagogy; the belief that all education should be in service of disrupting oppressive systems of power in all their forms

Critical theory

any method of assessing and challenging the power structures of societies; also refers to the various theoretical approaches to assessing and challenging power structures…