Margins Study Assistant

Chapter 1

An Introduction to Sociology

Summary

Sociology is the systematic and scientific study of society and social interaction. Sociology was developed as an academic and scientific way to study and theorize about the changes to society brought on by the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Some of the earliest sociologists thought that societies and individuals’ roles in society could be studied using the same scientific methodologies that were used in the natural sciences, while others believed that it… Those perspectives continue to be represented within sociology today

Key terms

sociology: the systematic study of society and social interaction
society: a group of people who live in a defined geographical area who interact with one another and who share a common culture
theory: a proposed explanation about social interactions or society
constructivism: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be
verstehen: a German word that means to understand in a deep way
antipositivism: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
function: the part a recurrent activity plays in the social life as a whole and the contribution it makes to structural continuity
functionalism: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society

Chapter 2

Sociological Research

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Summary

Prior to conducting a study, researchers are careful to apply operational definitions to their terms and to establish dependent and independent variables Using the scientific method, a researcher conducts a study in six phases: asking a question, researching existing sources, formulating a hypothesis, research design, collecting & analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Some sociologists conduct research through an interpretive framework rather than employing the scientific method The scientific method is useful in that it provides a clear method of organizing a study.

Key terms

interpretive framework: a sociological research approach that seeks in-depth understanding of a topic or subject through observation or interaction; this approach is not based on hypothesis testing
scientific method: an established scholarly research procedure that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering…
hypothesis: a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables
operational definitions: specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher plans to study
independent variables: variables that cause changes in dependent variables
dependent variables: a variable changed by other variables
reliability: a measure of a study’s consistency that considers how likely results are to be replicated if a study is reproduced
qualitative data: non-numerical, descriptive data that is often subjective and based on what is experienced in a natural setting

Chapter 3

Culture

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Summary

The term culture generally describes the shared values, beliefs, norms, language, practices, and artifacts of these people, and includes material and nonmaterial elements. A culture consists of many elements, such as the values and beliefs of its society. Culture is also governed by norms, including laws, mores (norms that embody moral views), and folkways (traditions without any moral underpinnings). The symbols and language of a society are key to developing and conveying culture.

Key terms

culture: shared beliefs, values, and practices
symbols: gestures or objects that have meanings associated with them that are recognized by people who share a culture
norms: the visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured
values: a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society
folkways: direct, appropriate behavior in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture
ethnocentrism: the evaluation and judgment of another culture based on one’s own cultural norms
society: people who live in a definable community and who share a culture
beliefs: tenets or convictions that people hold to be true

Chapter 4

Society and Social Interaction

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Summary

With the rise of capitalism, workers become alienated from themselves and others in society. For most of human history, people lived in preindustrial societies characterized by limited technology and low production of goods. At the turn of the new millennium, a new type of society emerged. This postindustrial, or information, society is built on digital technology and nonmaterial goods

Key terms

society: a group of people who live in a definable community and share the same cultural components
capitalism: a way of organizing an economy so that the things that are used to make and transport products (such as land, oil, factories, ships, etc.) are owned by individual people and…
organic solidarity: a type of social order based around an acceptance of economic and social differences
industrial societies: societies characterized by a reliance on mechanized labor to create material goods
false consciousness: a condition in which the beliefs, ideals, or ideology of a person are not in the person’s own best interest
habitualization: the idea that society is constructed by us and those before us, and it is followed like a habit
roles: patterns of behavior that are representative of a person’s social status
iron cage: a situation in which an individual is trapped by social institutions

Chapter 5

Socialization

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Summary

Research demonstrates that who we are is affected by both nature (our genetic and hormonal makeup) and nurture (the social environment in which we are raised). Psychological theories of self-development have been broadened by sociologists who explicitly study the role of society and social interaction in self-development. Charles Cooley and George Mead both contributed significantly to the sociological understanding of the development of self. Socialization is important because it helps uphold societies and cultures; it is also a key part of individual development.

Key terms

socialization: the process wherein people come to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values
self: a person’s distinct sense of identity as developed through social interaction
nurture: the role that our social environment plays in self-development
nature: the influence of our genetic makeup on self-development
degradation ceremony: the process by which new members of a total institution lose aspects of their old identities and are given new ones
resocialization: the process by which old behaviors are removed and new behaviors are learned in their place
peer group: a group made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests
moral development: the way people learn what is “good” and “bad” in society

Chapter 6

Groups and Organization

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Summary

Primary groups rarely have formal leaders, although there can be informal leadership. As the names suggest, the primary group is the long-term, complex one. Groups largely define how we think of ourselves. There are two main types of groups: primary and secondary.

Key terms

group: any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity
primary groups: small, informal groups of people who are closest to us
primary group: the long-term, complex one
meritocracy: a bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit—proven and documented skills
Iron Rule of Oligarchy: the theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather than through collaboration
explicit rules: the types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded, and standardized
expressive leader: a leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone’s emotional wellbeing
category: people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way

Chapter 7

Deviance, Crime, and Social Control

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Summary

Society seeks to limit deviance through the use of sanctions that help maintain a system of social control. The three major sociological paradigms offer different explanations for the motivation behind deviance and crime. Deviance is often relative, and perceptions of it can change quickly and unexpectedly Functionalists point out that deviance is a social necessity since it reinforces norms by reminding people of the consequences of violating them.

Key terms

crime: a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions
deviance: a violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms
social control: the regulation and enforcement of norms
sanctions: the means of enforcing rules
control theory: a theory that states social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society
secondary deviance: deviance that occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society
strain theory: a theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals
formal sanctions: sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced

Chapter 8

Media and Technology

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Summary

The knowledge gap refers to an effect of the digital divide: the lack of knowledge or information that keeps those who were not exposed to technology from gaining marketable skills Media and technology have been interwoven from the earliest days of human communication. Mass media have allowed for more shared social experiences, but new media now create a seemingly endless amount of airtime for any and every voice that wants to be heard. Technology is the application of science to address the problems of daily life.

Key terms

media: all print, digital, and electronic means of communication
technology: the application of science to solve problems in daily life
knowledge gap: the gap in information that builds as groups grow up without access to technology
digital divide: the uneven access to technology around race, class, and geographic lines
advancements: continuous, but that not everyone has equal access
new media: all interactive forms of information exchange
Internet: all examples of their intersection
gatekeeping: the sorting process by which thousands of possible messages are shaped into a mass media-appropriate form and reduced to a manageable amount

Chapter 9

Social Stratification in the United States

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Summary

Class systems are open, with achievement playing a role in social position. People fall into classes based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation. A meritocracy is an ideal system of social stratification that confers standing based on solely on personal worth, rewarding effort. Stratification systems, where people are ranked based on their wealth, power, and status within society, are either closed, meaning they allow little change in social position, or open, meaning they allow movement and…

Key terms

social stratification: a socioeconomic system that divides society’s members into categories ranking from high to low, based on things like wealth, power, and prestige. Also called inequality
caste system: a system in which people are born into a social standing that they will retain their entire lives
standard of living: the level of wealth available to acquire material goods and comforts to maintain a particular socioeconomic lifestyle
class: a group who shares a common social status based on factors like wealth, income, education, and occupation
wealth: the value of money and assets a person has from, for example, inheritance or salary
ideology: the cultural belief system that justifies a society’s system of stratification
meritocracy: an ideal system in which personal effort—or merit—determines social standing
class system: social standing based on social factors and individual accomplishments

Chapter 10

Global Inequality

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Summary

When looking at the world’s poor, we first have to define the difference between relative poverty, absolute poverty, and subjective poverty. While global inequality is nothing new, several factors make it more relevant than ever, like the global marketplace and the pace of information sharing. Researchers try to understand global inequality by classifying it according to factors such as how industrialized a nation is, whether a country serves as a means of production or as an owner, and what income a nation… While those in relative poverty might not have enough to live at their country’s standard of living, those in absolute poverty do not have, or barely have, basic necessities such as food.

Key terms

global inequality: the concentration of resources in core nations and in the hands of a wealthy minority
relative poverty: the state of poverty where one is unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in the country
subjective poverty: a state of poverty composed of many dimensions, subjectively present when one’s actual income does not meet one’s expectations
debt bondage: the act of people pledging themselves as servants in exchange for money for passage, and are subsequently paid too little to regain their freedom
dependency theory: a theory which states that global inequity is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations
deindustrialization: the loss of industrial production, usually to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations where the costs are lower
first world: a term from the Cold War era that is used to describe industrialized capitalist democracies
extreme poverty: the state where one is barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities

Chapter 11

Race and Ethnicity

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Summary

The concept of culture of prejudice recognizes that all people are subject to stereotypes that are ingrained in their culture Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture and national origin. Minority groups are defined by their lack of power Functionalist views of race study the role dominant and subordinate groups play to create a stable social structure.

Key terms

ethnicity: shared culture, which may include heritage, language, religion, and more
minority group: any group of people who are singled out from the others for differential and unequal treatment
culture of prejudice: the theory that prejudice is embedded in our culture
prejudice: biased thought based on flawed assumptions about a group of people
subordinate group: a group of people who have less power than the dominant group
stereotypes: oversimplified ideas about groups of people
model minority: the stereotype applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching higher educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without protest against the majority establishment
racism: a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that are used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others

Chapter 12

Gender, Sex, and Sexuality

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Summary

Individuals who strongly identify with the opposing gender are considered transgender The terms “sex” and “gender” refer to two different identifiers. Sex denotes biological characteristics differentiating males and females, while gender denotes social and cultural characteristics of masculine and feminine behavior. Sex and gender are not always synchronous.

Key terms

gender: a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions of behaviors that are considered male or female
sex: a term that denotes the presence of physical or physiological differences between males and females
sexuality: a person’s capacity for sexual feelings
transgender: an adjective that describes individuals who identify with the behaviors and characteristics that are other than their biological sex
gender role: society’s concept of how men and women should behave
double standard: a set of principles that applies differently to one group of people or circumstances than to another when they should be applied equally; an example is the belief that men, but…
DOMA: Defense of Marriage Act, a 1996 U.S. law explicitly limiting the definition of “marriage” to a union between one man and one woman and allowing each individual state to recognize…

Chapter 13

Aging and the Elderly

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Summary

The social study of aging uses population data and cohorts to predict social concerns related to aging populations. Global studies on aging reveal a difference in life expectancy between core and peripheral nations as well as a discrepancy in nations’ preparedness for the challenges of increasing elderly populations In the United States, the population is increasingly older (called “the graying of the United States”), especially due to the baby Boomer segment. Ageism, which involves stereotyping and discrimination against the elderly, leads to misconceptions about their abilities.

Key terms

life expectancy: the number of years a newborn is expected to live
population: increasingly older (called “the graying of the United States”), especially due to the baby Boomer segment
cohort: a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait
ageism: discrimination based on age
age stratification theory: a theory which states that members of society are stratified by age, just as they are stratified by race, class, and gender
modernization theory: a theory which suggests that the primary cause of the elderly losing power and influence in society are the parallel forces of industrialization and modernization
selective optimization with compensation theory: a theory based on the idea that successful personal development throughout the life course and subsequent mastery of the challenges associated with everyday life are based on the…
subculture of aging theory: a theory that focuses on the shared community created by the elderly when they are excluded (due to age), voluntarily or involuntarily, from participating in other groups

Chapter 14

Relationships, Marriage, and Family

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Summary

Both marriage and a family may be defined differently—and practiced differently—in cultures across the world. People's concepts of marriage and family in the United States are changing. Increases in cohabitation, same-sex partners, and singlehood are altering our ideas of marriage. While most children still live in opposite-sex, two-parent, married households, that is no longer viewed as the only type of nuclear family

Key terms

family: socially recognized groups of individuals who may be joined by blood, marriage, or adoption and who form an emotional connection and an economic unit of society
marriage: a legally recognized contract between two or more people in a sexual relationship who have an expectation of permanence about their relationship
cohabitation: the act of a couple sharing a residence while they are not married
nuclear family: two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household
patrilocal residence: a system in which it is customary for the a wife to live with (or near) her husband’s family
matrilocal residence: a system in which it is customary for a husband to live with the his wife’s family
family of orientation: the family into which one is born
extended family: a household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins

Chapter 15

Religion

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Summary

Sociological terms for different kinds of religious organizations are, in order of decreasing influence in society, ecclesia, denomination, sect, and cult. Religion describes the beliefs, values, and practices related to sacred or spiritual concerns. Social theorist Émile Durkheim defined religion as a “unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things” (1915). Max Weber believed religion could be a force for social change.

Key terms

religion: a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds to be sacred or spiritually significant
denomination: a large, mainstream religion that is not sponsored by the state
ecclesia: a religion that is considered the state religion
sect: a small, new offshoot of a denomination
cults: religious groups that are small, secretive, and highly controlling of members and have a charismatic leader
religious rituals: behaviors or practices that are either required for or expected of the members of a particular group
religious experience: the conviction or sensation that one is connected to “the divine”
megachurch: a Christian church that has a very large congregation averaging more than 2,000 people who attend regular weekly services

Chapter 16

Education

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Summary

Education happens through both formal and informal systems; both foster cultural transmission. Universal access to education is a worldwide concern Educational systems around the world have many differences, though the same factors—including resources and money—affect every educational system. Educational distribution is a major issue in many nations, including in the United States, where the amount of money spent per student varies greatly by state.

Key terms

education: a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms
cultural transmission: the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture
universal access: the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system
grade inflation: the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago
credentialism: the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications
informal education: education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society
No Child Left Behind Act: an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding
tracking: a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities

Chapter 17

Government and Politics

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Summary

Power is an entity or individual’s ability to control or direct others, while authority is influence that is predicated on perceived legitimacy. Max Weber studied power and authority, differentiating between the two concepts and formulating a system for classifying types of authority Generally speaking, citizens of nations wherein power is concentrated in one leader or a small group are more likely to suffer violations of civil liberties and experience economic inequality. Sociologists examine government and politics in terms of their impact on individuals and larger social systems.

Key terms

politics: a means of studying a nation’s or group’s underlying social norms as values as evidenced through its political structure and practices
authority: power that people accept because it comes from a source that is perceived as legitimate
dictatorship: a form of government in which a single person (or a very small group) wields complete and absolute authority over a government or populace after the dictator rises to power…
democracy: a form of government that provides all citizens with an equal voice or vote in determining state policy
small group: more likely to suffer violations of civil liberties and experience economic inequality
power: the ability to exercise one’s will over others
totalitarian dictatorship: an extremely oppressive form of dictatorship in which most aspects of citizens’ lives are controlled by the leader
oligarchy: a form of government in which power is held by a small, elite group

Chapter 18

Work and the Economy

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Summary

Under socialism, the means of production is commonly owned, and the economy is controlled centrally by government. Economy refers to the social institution through which a society’s resources (goods and services) are managed. Under capitalism, private owners invest their capital and that of others to produce goods and services they can sell in an open market. Convergence theory seeks to explain the correlation between a country’s level of development and changes in its economic structure

Key terms

economy: the social institution through which a society’s resources (goods and services) are managed
capitalism: an economic system in which there is private ownership (as opposed to state ownership) and where there is an impetus to produce profit, and thereby wealth
socialism: an economic system in which there is government ownership (often referred to as “state run”) of goods and their production, with an impetus to share work and wealth equally among…
means of production: commonly owned, and the economy is controlled centrally by government
convergence theory: a sociological theory to explain how and why societies move toward similarity over time as their economies develop
global assembly lines: a practice where products are assembled over the course of several international transactions
structural unemployment: a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the jobs that are available
outsourcing: a practice where jobs are contracted to an outside source, often in another country

Chapter 19

Health and Medicine

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Summary

Social epidemiology is the study of the causes and distribution of diseases. Medical sociology is the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy. Low-income nations are more likely to contend with cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, high infant mortality rates, scarce medical personnel, and inadequate water and sanitation systems Although people in the United States are generally in good health compared to less developed countries, the United States is still facing challenging issues such as a prevalence of obesity and diabetes.

Key terms

disability: a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks; the World Health Organization notes that this is a social limitation
United States: generally in good health compared to less developed countries, the United States is still facing challenging issues such as a prevalence of obesity and diabetes
medical sociology: the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy
epidemiology: the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases
social epidemiology: the study of the causes and distribution of diseases
mortality: the number of deaths in a given time or place
medicalization: the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy
stigmatization: the act of spoiling someone's identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability

Chapter 20

Population, Urbanization, and the Environment

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Summary

Malthusian, zero population growth, cornucopian theory, and demographic transition theories all help sociologists study demography. Scholars understand demography through various analyses. The earth’s human population is growing quickly, especially in peripheral countries. Factors that impact population include birthrates, mortality rates, and migration, including immigration and emigration.

Key terms

urbanization: the study of the social, political, and economic relationships of cities
zero population growth: a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration
cornucopian theory: a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population
mortality rate: a measure of the number of people in a population who die
earth’s human population: growing quickly, especially in peripheral countries
exurbs: communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status
Malthusian theory: a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility)

Chapter 21

Social Movements and Social Change

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Summary

There are three different forms of collective behavior: crowd, mass, and public. Finally the assembling perspective focuses on collective action rather than collective behavior, addressing the processes associated with crowd behavior and the lifecycle and various categories of gatherings The next, the value-added theory, is a functionalist perspective that states that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur. Social movements intersect with environmental changes, technological innovations, and other external factors to create social change.

Key terms

social change: the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations
social movement: a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal
assembling perspective: a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action
value-added theory: a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur
mass: a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity
collective behavior: a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage
public: an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas
crowd: a fairly large number of people who share close proximity