Margins Study Assistant

Chapter 1

Lifespan Psychology and Developmental Theories

Summary

Lifespan development is a subfield of the discipline of psychology; human development adds a multidisciplinary approach to the study of the lifespan The study of lifespan development extends back to the ancient Greeks, through the Child Study Movement in the early 1900s, to today Lifespan development as a scientific discipline is concerned with application—taking findings and putting them to use in people’s lives Lifespan development addresses the nature and nurture question, which explores the sources of developmental change and the relative contributions of genetics and the environment

Key terms

psychology: scientific study of the mind and all the behavior it produces
critical period: developmental age range in which certain experiences are required for the development of a psychological or physical ability
sensitive period: age range when the development of a characteristic is particularly open to inputs and influences from the environment
child study movement: social and historical consensus that combined several interests to focus the scientific community’s interest on child development
nature and nurture: psychologists’ way of recognizing that most development has both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) sources of influence
application: process of translating evidence-based research and ideas into practical solutions to influence and improve human life
human development: scientific perspective that incorporates a multidisciplinary approach to understanding the development process
lifespan development: scientific study of growth, change and stability in humans from conception until death

Chapter 2

Genetic, Prenatal, and Perinatal Health

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Summary

Genotype is the unique combination of individual genes, and phenotype is the way these genes express themselves physically and behaviorally Different types of genetic inheritance (recessive/dominant, incomplete dominance, codominance) determine the way the inherited genes are expressed Genes and environments mutually influence gene expression, and phenotype is observed through epigenetic effects and gene-environment interactions Humans have forty-six paired chromosomes after receiving twenty-three, half of each pair, from each biological parent

Key terms

gene: hereditary unit composed of a specific DNA sequence that occupies a specific location along a chromosome in an individual
incomplete dominance: form of genetic expression in which both inherited alleles are partially expressed
chromosome: strand of the DNA sequence in the nucleus of an individual’s cells that carries genes transmitting hereditary information
genotype: individual’s particular genetic composition of alleles at specific locations
phenotype: observable expression of someone’s genome
amniocentesis: test in which a needle is inserted through the mother’s abdomen to take a sample of the amniotic fluid and look for chromosomal disorders and some types of genetic defects
chorionic villus sampling: prenatal test that uses a placental tissue sample to determine whether chromosomal or genetic disorders are present in the fetus
in vitro fertilization (IVF): form of assisted reproductive technology (ART) in which a fertilized egg is transferred into a uterus for implantation

Chapter 3

Physical and Cognitive Development in Infants and Toddlers (Birth to Age 3)

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Summary

Growth charts help document developmental patterns and identify signs of abnormal growth Sleep is an essential biopsychosocial process, meaning it is influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors As the brain develops, once-automatic reflexes become controlled movements. Significant physical developmental changes occur during the first two years of life.

Key terms

growth chart: chart used to identify typical weight, height, and head circumference for boys and girls
biopsychosocial: change influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors
reflex: involuntary movement in response to a stimulation
dynamic systems theory: theory that developmental behaviors and milestones are the result of interactions between systems, including those within the individual
interactionist approach: approach to language development highlighting the complex interactions between the biological readiness of children and the environment in which they are raised
nativist approach: approach to language development asserting that humans are born with the innate ability to learn language and that experience plays a very limited role
synapse: gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released from the axon to the dendrite of the next neuron
prefrontal cortex: front of the frontal lobe that regulates emotions and is involved in planning and judgment

Chapter 4

Social and Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers (Birth to Age 3)

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Summary

Temperament can be shaped and modified by parents and culture and can predict personality traits in childhood and adolescence Personality begins to form in infancy and is shaped by biology, environment, and temperament. Infants start to develop a sense of self as separate from others through understanding what they can and cannot control in their environment Infants experience gender socialization through interactions with caregivers, social and cultural experiences, and perceived expectations of their behavior.

Key terms

emotion: temporary affective state or feeling that influences an individual’s physiology, facial expressions, and motivations
gender socialization: the process by which individuals are exposed to and learn gender roles and expectations in their culture
personality: long-lasting pattern of behavior, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions consistent across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
temperament: innate, biological components of individuality present as consistent patterns of behavior shortly after birth
sense of self: awareness of self as different from others
autonomy versus doubt: second stage in Erikson’s theory of personality development, in which the toddler forms a sense of autonomy based on whether they are encouraged to try new skills and tasks
mirror test: (also, rouge test) test of infant visual self-recognition in which the baby is placed in front of a mirror with a red mark on their nose

Chapter 5

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood (Ages 3 to 6)

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Summary

A healthy balanced diet is essential to optimal growth. After rapid growth during infancy, physical growth in early childhood slows and becomes relatively consistent. Average height and weight differences between girls and boys are only minor in early childhood. The brain continues to grow at a rapid pace, due to overproduction of synapses as well as stimulation and increased myelination

Key terms

healthy balanced diet: essential to optimal growth
scaffolding: process of providing temporary learning support when tasks are just outside a person’s range of ability
theory of mind: awareness that our beliefs and perspectives are different from other people’s
food desert: geographic area where fresh food is not readily available
animism: belief that objects are alive and possess consciousness
egocentrism: preoperational children’s tendency to have limited logical reasoning abilities because they perceive things from only their own point of view, according to Piaget’s stage theory…
preoperational stage: stage in which children begin to represent their thoughts and ideas using symbols such as words and images; the second stage in Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development
sociocultural theory of cognitive development: theory of development proposed by Vygotsky that emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors on individual cognitive development

Chapter 6

Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood (Ages 3 to 6)

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Summary

Self-esteem emerges in early childhood and is influenced mainly by parental approval and social comparisons Self-regulation matures in early childhood and includes impulse control and inhibition. This is also a time of concrete self-concept development. Self-conscious emotions mature through the development of metacognition

Key terms

self-regulation: ability to calm and de-escalate our heightened emotions and to express situationally appropriate emotions
metacognition: ability to think about your own thinking, or to contemplate your memories, emotions, or motivations
self-concept: ideas we have about ourselves, and the words, pictures, and feelings we use to describe ourselves
self-esteem: evaluation of our self, determined either through social acceptance or social comparisons
impulse control: ability to consider long-term goals rather than short-term pleasures
social comparisons: evaluations of self and others in order to rank-order or judge
gender constancy: third milestone in gender schema theory in which children understand that gender is stable and does not change based on clothes, hairstyle, or temporary experimentation with…
neurodiversity: any psychological, emotional, cognitive, or sensory experience that is different from the majority

Chapter 7

Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood (Ages 7 to 12)

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Summary

Piaget believed that during middle childhood, children can use logic to solve concrete problems, such as conservation and seriation During middle childhood, growth rates slow down compared to earlier childhood, but children still increase in height and weight Brain growth allows for improved sensory and motor skills, and faster reaction times and information processing abilities Gross and fine motor skills continue to develop rapidly, allowing children to participate in organized sports activities, meet the demands of a school setting, and gain independence with improvements in self-care

Key terms

seriation: ability to put objects in order, such as by size or color
least-restrictive environment: principle that states that all children with a disability should receive general education in an environment that is as similar as possible to the one for children without…
triarchic theory of intelligence: theory of intelligence that proposes that there are three types of intelligence: analytical, creative and practical
mental age: age at which a person is performing based on an intelligence test
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): neurodevelopmental disorder that includes symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and deficits in executive functions
concrete operational thinking: third stage of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development during which children begin to understand basic cognitive principles and concepts such as cause and effect, relationships…
constructivism: idea that students play an active role in acquiring knowledge by constructing it through experience, rather than just passively receiving information
giftedness: variation in intelligence marked by cognitive flexibility, cognitive performance, specific ability areas, and an IQ above 130, may be referred to by other terms

Chapter 8

Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood (Ages 7 to 12)

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Summary

The psychosocial theory of development contends that the main dilemma children face in middle childhood is Erikson’s industry versus inferiority, in which industry is the desirable outcome and is fostered by positive… Skills that allow children to develop emotional intelligence and emotion regulation during middle childhood include emotional awareness and coping strategies, which can increase resilience and positive coping in children Interactions with supportive caregivers allow children to regulate their emotions in multiple settings and to learn and follow emotional display rules They use coping techniques that can help them to develop resilience and adapt in the face of adversity

Key terms

industry versus inferiority: Erikson’s fourth psychosocial stage of development, describing the way children construct their sense of success and accomplishment in work tasks, such as school
emotional display rule: culturally and context-specific defined social rule for outwardly displaying emotion
resilience: ability to successfully adapt and respond to stressful events
externalizing behavior: behavior that is negative or harmful and external to a person, including aggressive behavior, rule breaking, and other negative behaviors that are more social or interpersonal
internalizing behavior: behavior that is negative or harmful and internal to a person, including feeling withdrawn or lonely, anxious or depressed, and/or having related physical health issues
popular child: child who receives a high number of positive nominations, a low number of negative nominations, and is well liked in their classroom
relational aggression: behaviors that are intended to hurt social relationships such as intentional exclusion, spreading of rumors, betrayal of friendships, and manipulative control
depression: mood disorder involving feelings of sadness that are disruptive and can make functioning difficult for individuals

Chapter 9

Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence (Ages 12 to 18)

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Summary

Adequate nutrition and a balanced diet are crucial during adolescence to support growth, development, and overall health. Adolescence is a period of growth and development that involves increases in height, muscle mass, and fat tissue The two brain regions that play a crucial role in teen growth and maturation are the frontal lobe and limbic system. The frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex are involved with executive functioning, rationality, decision making, planning, and organization.

Key terms

adolescence: transition period of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional growth and development of an individual from childhood to adulthood
limbic system: set of brain structures that develop over the course of adolescence in terms of their primary functionality as well as their connections and coordination with other areas of the…
puberty: period of time and the process whereby children transition to physical and reproductive maturity
frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex: involved with executive functioning, rationality, decision making, planning, and organization
balanced diet: crucial during adolescence to support growth, development, and overall health
abstinence-only education: teaches that abstaining from sex is expected until marriage; this educational track typically excludes information about the utility of contraception and condoms to prevent…
relativistic thinking: ability to think in multiple dimensions and to realize that most statements of fact are relative to the position of the observer
secondary sex characteristics: physical developments that accompany primary sex characteristics but are not directly related to the ability to reproduce

Chapter 10

Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence (Ages 12 to 18)

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Summary

The exploration of and commitment to an identity is a prominent psychological achievement of adolescence in which teens explore their identity, consider their past experiences, and explore societal expectations and… Adolescence is a time that many societies set aside in some way as children transition to adult status and roles. In some countries, teens delay transitional events such as leaving home, whereas in other nations, teens play crucial roles in supporting their families' basic needs and improving their economic situation Key socioemotional developmental tasks for adolescents include figuring out who they are, developing close relationships with peers, and beginning to become independent of their parents while navigating their…

Key terms

identity: individual’s complete sense of who they are, including their traits, capabilities, interests, values, and social roles
heteronormativity: idea that heterosexuality is the norm or preferred sexual orientation and that opposite-sex people are best suited for sexual and marital relationships
identity moratorium: stage in which individuals are actively exploring various identities but not declaring an identity to be fully formed
cultural heritage: adaptations to the natural and social world that have shared meaning and are passed from generation to generation
gender intensification hypothesis: prediction that conforming to gender roles is of heightened relevance during adolescence
de-idealization: tendency of adolescents to see a mismatch between the values their parents proclaim, the rules they put forward, and the way imperfect parents lead their own imperfect lives
identity achievement: realization and commitment to a coherent understanding of oneself and our relationship with society after exploring various identities
identity diffusion: identity status in which the individual has low commitment and does not actively seek an identity; most closely aligns with Erikson’s role confusion

Chapter 11

Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Adulthood (Ages 18 to 29)

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Summary

Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood proposes that the time period from ages eighteen to twenty-five is a time of identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling in-between, and being in an age of possibilities. While emerging adulthood occurs in a variety of contexts and cultures, there may be differences in the way this transition is experienced. Factors such as SES and the degree to which exploration is encouraged or discouraged can influence whether and how individuals explore educational and career options and commit to jobs and relationships By the time most of us reach emerging adulthood, we’ve completed puberty, and our bodies can be considered to be fully mature

Key terms

emerging adulthood: beginning stages of adulthood characterized by the achievement of new legal statuses as well as intense exploration of career options, beliefs, and relationships
obesity: when an individual’s BMI is over 30; correlated with many health issues including high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart disease
obesity paradox: observation that people with a high BMI who develop heart disease sometimes live longer and are in better health than people with a lower BMI who develop heart disease
post-formal thought: stage beyond formal operations that is more flexible, complex, and capable of recognizing more than one objectively correct answer to problem
relativism: idea that cultural standards, values, and ethics are a product of the time and cultural context within which they developed, and what is proper, relevant, or true for one…
scarcity heuristic: mental shortcut that causes us to believe that the rarer or less available something is, the more valuable it is
civil service job: government job that doesn’t involve political appointments or legal work; examples include urban planners, budget analysts, sanitation workers, and firefighters

Chapter 12

Social and Emotional Development in Early Adulthood (Ages 18 to 29)

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Summary

Feelings of helplessness or indecision known as the quarter-life crisis can be offset by self-reflection and perceived social support A primary challenge of early adulthood is to establish close and trusting relationships with others. Achievement of developmental tasks is affected by both individual priorities and cultural context The modern world offers more connection and diversity but also greater economic difficulties, which can create both opportunities and challenges in completing developmental tasks.

Key terms

self: totality of all your personal characteristics, including the way you see yourself, represent yourself, and relate to others
self-determination theory: theory that proposes that success and well-being are maximized when we are able to balance our needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness
work-life balance: arrangement that allows a person to spend the desired amount of time on activities that are important to them such as work, leisure, education, and caregiving
social clock: cultural expectations about normative behavior and achievements that are associated with age
homogamy: preference for forming romantic relationships with those who are similar to us
autonomous interdependence: according to Selman, adult stage of friendship in which friends appreciate and respect each other’s individuality and identity while also relying on each other for support
intergenerational solidarity: closeness among family generations promoted by frequent interaction, expressions of affection, alignment of values and beliefs, provision of help, proximity to each other, and…

Chapter 13

Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood (Ages 30 to 59)

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Summary

Presbyopia results in loss of visual acuity. Presbycusis results in the loss of hearing acuity In middle adulthood, the brain processes information differently. Processing speed slows because of increased distractibility and cortical activation during cognitive tasks, while the positivity effect causes greater cognitive attention to positive stimuli

Key terms

presbyopia: age-related loss of visual acuity
presbycusis: age-related hearing loss
allostatic load: cumulative health toll of stressors, including the body’s biological response and secondary health impacts of stress-related changes to behaviors
relativism: recognizing that some problems or dilemmas may have more than one viable solution, depending on a person’s perspective and priorities
resilience: person’s ability to successfully adapt to difficult life experiences by making mental, emotional, and behavioral adjustments to cope
gut-brain axis: bidirectional connections between the nerves of the digestive system and the central nervous system
Flynn effect: phenomenon that younger generations perform better on intelligence tests than previous generations
primary aging: aging that results from inevitable and genetically influenced biological changes

Chapter 14

Social and Emotional Development in Middle Adulthood (Ages 30 to 59)

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Summary

According to many theories regarding the development of self, the primary challenge of middle adulthood is to prioritize the mentoring and care of others (generativity) While the transitions at this time of life can be challenging, anxiety associated with these changes can be managed through mature defense mechanisms Failure to embrace generativity or use of immature defense mechanisms can result in unhealthy developmental stagnation. Environments that present challenges or role expansion may facilitate changes to perspectives, goals, and behaviors as people adapt to new experiences.

Key terms

defense mechanism: psychological strategy to manage anxiety and stress triggered by developmental challenges
role expansion: increase in the scope of behaviors, positions, and responsibilities expected of a person
egalitarian marriage: marriage in which responsibilities are shared equally between partners, and roles are not prescribed according to traditional gender role stereotypes
family of choice: individuals who are not necessarily related by marriage or biology but have formed a committed kin-like network to play significant roles in each other’s lives
family systems theory: perspective that family dynamics are best understood as part of a complex and developing family unit, rather than as singular individuals or dyadic relationships
compensatory model: perspective that predicts that individuals will seek out and use positive interactions within one relationship or role to counterbalance the negative effects or missing benefits…
generativity versus stagnation: sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development, which involves focusing one's energy on giving back to others and continuing to have productive and creative endeavors

Chapter 15

Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood (Age 60 and Beyond)

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Summary

Possible causes to explain why people physically age focus on the effects of stress hormones, telomeres, free radicals, bodily wear and tear, and genetic variability Muscle and bone mass decline throughout much of adulthood but more noticeably in later years Declines in sensory functions such as vision and hearing may be problematic in later life Several changes to the brain have been linked to decreased cognitive functioning in older age

Key terms

telomere: protective strand of DNA on the tip of each chromosome that becomes shorter each time a cell divides until the cell is no longer able to divide any more
cellular clock theory: theory that cells can divide to reproduce themselves only a limited number of times, and as they reach this number, the body is no longer able to replace old or damaged cells…
free radical theory: theory that free radicals, unstable oxygen molecules that are a by-product of food metabolization, damage tissues or cells, and this damage accumulates as people get older
presbyopia: age-related decline in vision due to stiffening of the lens that results in more difficulty seeing things that are close
mild cognitive impairment (MCI): cognitive decline that is more severe than normative but below the threshold for a dementia-related diagnosis
cognitive reserve: characteristics that are protective against dementia by delaying onset and reducing symptoms
age-related macular degeneration: blurring and potential loss of vision in the center of the field of vision as a result of damage to the central part of the retina (macula)
Alzheimer’s disease: most common form of dementia; progressive, fatal, and characterized by the presence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain and affecting memory before…

Chapter 16

Social and Emotional Development in Late Adulthood (Age 60 and Beyond)

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Summary

Stereotypes can lead to ageism and discrimination In Erikson’s final stage, integrity versus despair, many people reflect on their life and consider its meaning. Cultural perspectives on aging are often a combination of positive and negative views. These views may be affected by several factors, including cultural values and perceived competition for limited resources

Key terms

integrity versus despair: final stage of Erickson's psychosocial development, which involves undertaking a life review that includes integrity and accepting life in its entirety with a positive outlook
ageism: discrimination against or different treatment of someone solely due to their age
401(k) plan: common retirement plan in the United States, in which employers match employees’ contributions but individuals are responsible for investing their own retirement account
adult daycare: facility that provides supervision and activities for older adults who are not capable of safely staying at home unsupervised
disengagement theory: theory that describes shrinking social networks as evidence that separating yourself from your social ties is a normal part of aging
socioemotional selectivity theory: theory suggesting that increased focus on emotional goals makes older adults more selective in their social partners, leading to a smaller social network that is more emotionally…
activity theory: theory that suggests being more active and socially engaged is beneficial for older adults
social network: complex variety of people with whom individuals are socially engaged

Chapter 17

Death, Dying, and Grieving

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Summary

Death can involve not just death of the physical body, but also loss of the self and relationships. Death can also induce feelings of anxiety and loneliness The experience of death can vary considerably. Different causes of death have different trajectories that vary in terms of how sudden death occurs and whether decline is steady or fluctuates

Key terms

advance directive: legal document that specifies what a person’s wishes are in the event they are unable to express them at some point in the future
cardiopulmonary death: death that occurs when heartbeat and breathing have stopped and cannot be restarted through cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or other means
complicated grief: form of grief that lasts longer than is typical and is also associated with long-term adjustment problems; described as “prolonged grief disorder” in the DSM-V-TR
hospice care: type of care provided if a person’s condition is uncurable or treatment would be too stressful; includes managing physical symptoms, including pain, as well as addressing the…
living will: legal document specifying a person’s wishes regarding life-sustaining medical treatment in the event they are unable to express these wishes when treatment is needed
middle knowledge: intermediate step of grieving in which a person knows a loss is coming or has occurred but has not fully accepted the reality of it
terror management theory: theory that when our sense of self is threatened, we try to preserve it by becoming more committed to cultural values and showing more outgroup bias
social death: exclusion from social interactions and considerations; when a person is viewed as not being part of society