Margins Study Assistant

Chapter 1

Introduction to Psychology

Summary

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of psychology develop critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method, and recognize the complexity of behavior However, both Wundt and James helped create psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. He thought this was best accomplished by introspection

Key terms

ology: suffix that denotes “scientific study of”
psychology: scientific study of the mind and behavior
introspection: process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts
functionalism: focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment
humanism: perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
clinical psychology: area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior
counseling psychology: area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals
empirical method: method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities

Chapter 2

Psychological Research

Read chapter 2 in the book

Summary

In this way, research enables scientists to separate fact from simple opinion. While this approach provides an incredible depth of information, the ability to generalize these observations to the larger population is problematic. Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world around them works, and they are able to do so by coming up with theories that generate hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. The clinical or case study involves studying just a few individuals for an extended period of time.

Key terms

population: overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in
fact: objective and verifiable observation, established using evidence collected through empirical research
opinion: personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate
generalize: inferring that the results for a sample apply to the larger population
clinical or case study: observational research study focusing on one or a few people
naturalistic observation: observation of behavior in its natural setting
falsifiable: able to be disproven by experimental results
control group: serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors that might influence the results of the study—by holding such factors constant across groups so that the…

Chapter 3

Biopsychology

Read chapter 3 in the book

Summary

While glia generally play supporting roles, the communication between neurons is fundamental to all of the functions associated with the nervous system. In order to exhibit a recessive phenotype, an individual must be homozygous for the recessive allele. A dominant allele always results in the dominant phenotype. Glia and neurons are the two cell types that make up the nervous system.

Key terms

neuron: cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system
recessive allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele
nervous system: made up of billions of neurons and controls our thoughts, responses, and movements; divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
dominant allele: allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele
gene: sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics
communication between neurons: fundamental to all of the functions associated with the nervous system
phenotype: individual’s inheritable physical characteristics
homozygous: consisting of two identical alleles

Chapter 4

States of Consciousness

Read chapter 4 in the book

Summary

Important factors in these changes are the biological rhythms, and, more specifically, the circadian rhythms generated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). When people travel across multiple time zones or work rotating shifts, they can experience disruptions of their circadian cycles that can lead to insomnia, sleepiness, and decreased alertness. If people go extended periods of time without sleep, they will accrue a sleep debt and potentially experience a number of adverse psychological and physiological consequences States of consciousness vary over the course of the day and throughout our lives.

Key terms

consciousness: awareness of internal and external stimuli
sleep: state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): area of the hypothalamus in which the body’s biological clock is located
insomnia: consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month’s time
circadian rhythm: biological rhythm that occurs over approximately 24 hours
sleep debt: result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
biological rhythm: internal cycle of biological activity
cognitive-behavioral therapy: psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors that is sometimes used to treat sleep disorders such as insomnia

Chapter 5

Sensation and Perception

Read chapter 5 in the book

Summary

Perception involves the organization, interpretation, and conscious experience of those sensations. Sensory adaptation, selective attention, and signal detection theory can help explain what is perceived and what is not. Both light and sound can be described in terms of wave forms with physical characteristics like amplitude, wavelength, and timbre. Wavelength and frequency are inversely related so that longer waves have lower frequencies, and shorter waves have higher frequencies.

Key terms

perception: way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
sensation: what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor
light wave’s wavelength: generally associated with color, and its amplitude is associated with brightness
timbre: descriptive term which refers to a sound’s quality; impacted by the interplay of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves
signal detection theory: change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state
frequency: number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
wavelength: length of a wave from one peak to the next peak

Chapter 6

Learning

Read chapter 6 in the book

Summary

There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call classical conditioning.

Key terms

learning: change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience
instinct: unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans
operant conditioning: form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated
associative learning: form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)
classical conditioning: learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior
reflex: unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment
observational learning: type of learning that occurs by watching others
law of effect: behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged

Chapter 7

Thinking and Intelligence

Read chapter 7 in the book

Summary

Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a system of grammar. Language has a strong influence on thought, and the concept of how language may influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in psychology Concepts and their corresponding prototypes help us quickly organize our thinking by creating categories into which we can sort new information. We also develop schemata, which are clusters of related concepts.

Key terms

grammar: set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon
language: communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another
schema: (plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
concept: category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences
cognition: thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory
prototype: best representation of a concept
lexicon: the words of a given language
event schema: set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script

Chapter 8

Memory

Read chapter 8 in the book

Summary

Storage is retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. The idea that information is processed through three memory systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory. Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing. First, environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less than a second to a few seconds.

Key terms

memory: set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of time
Atkinson-Shiffrin model: memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue
retrieval: act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness
sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes
effortful processing: encoding of information that takes effort and attention
relearning: learning information that was previously learned

Chapter 9

Lifespan Development

Read chapter 9 in the book

Summary

Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to death. They view development as a lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical, cognitive development, and psychosocial. There are several theories of development that focus on the following issues: whether development is continuous or discontinuous, whether development follows one course or many, and the relative influence of nature… Eric Erikson modified Freud’s ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development.

Key terms

cognitive development: domain of lifespan development that examines learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
psychosocial development: domain of lifespan development that examines emotions, personality, and social relationships
conception: when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
conservation: idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size, volume, or number as long as nothing is added or removed
disorganized attachment: characterized by the child’s odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused
do not resuscitate (DNR): a legal document stating that if a person stops breathing or their heart stops, medical personnel such as doctors and nurses are not to take steps to revive or resuscitate the…
emerging adulthood: newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college, get a job, get married, and start a family

Chapter 10

Emotion and Motivation

Read chapter 10 in the book

Summary

Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external factors. Multiple theories have been put forward regarding motivation. More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that instincts and the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior. Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors, and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social motives.

Key terms

emotion: subjective state of being often described as feelings
motivation: wants or needs that direct behavior toward some goal
instinct: species-specific pattern of behavior that is unlearned
hierarchy of needs: spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization
self-efficacy: individual’s belief in their own capabilities or capacities to complete a task
overweight: adult with a BMI between 25 and 29.9
anorexia nervosa: eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise
basolateral complex: part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory

Chapter 11

Personality

Read chapter 11 in the book

Summary

Freud also proposed three components to our personality: the id, ego, and superego. The job of the ego is to balance the sexual and aggressive drives of the id with the moral ideal of the superego. He was also the first to recognize that much of our mental life takes place outside of our conscious awareness. Freud also said that personality develops through a series of psychosexual stages.

Key terms

personality: long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways
ego: aspect of personality that represents the self, or the part of one’s personality that is visible to others
id: aspect of personality that consists of our most primitive drives or urges, including impulses for hunger, thirst, and sex
conscious: mental activity (thoughts, feelings, and memories) that we can access at any time
superego: aspect of the personality that serves as one’s moral compass, or conscience
Five Factor Model: theory that personality is composed of five factors, including openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
locus of control: beliefs about the power we have over our lives; an external locus of control is the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control; an internal locus of control is the…

Chapter 12

Social Psychology

Read chapter 12 in the book

Summary

Lay people tend to over-rely on dispositional explanations for behavior and ignore the power of situational influences, a perspective called the fundamental attribution error. Human behavior is largely influenced by our social roles, norms, and scripts. Social psychology is the subfield of psychology that studies the power of the situation to influence individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Psychologists categorize the causes of human behavior as those due to internal factors, such as personality, or those due to external factors, such as cultural and other social influences.

Key terms

social psychology: field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each other, with particular focus on the power of the situation
social role: socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group
fundamental attribution error: tendency to overemphasize internal factors as attributions for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation
internal factor: internal attribute of a person, such as personality traits or temperament
script: person’s knowledge about the sequence of events in a specific setting
individualistic culture: culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy
attribution: explanation for the behavior of other people
actor-observer bias: phenomenon of explaining other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors and our own behaviors are due to situational forces

Chapter 13

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

Read chapter 13 in the book

Summary

This movement aided in expanding industrial psychology to include organizational psychology Performance appraisal systems are an active area of research and practice in industrial psychology The field of I-O psychology had its birth in industrial psychology and the use of psychological concepts to aid in personnel selection. However, with research such as the Hawthorne study, it was found that productivity was affected more by human interaction and not physical factors; the field of industrial psychology expanded to include organizational…

Key terms

organizational psychology: branch of psychology that studies the interactions between people working in organizations and the effects of those interactions on productivity
industrial psychology: branch of psychology that studies job characteristics, applicant characteristics, and how to match them; also studies employee training and performance appraisal
performance appraisal: evaluation of an employee’s success or lack of success at performing the duties of the job
job analysis: determining and listing tasks associated with a particular job
immutable characteristic: traits that employers cannot use to discriminate in hiring, benefits, promotions, or termination; these traits are fundamental to one’s personal identity (e.g. skin color and…
organizational culture: values, visions, hierarchies, norms and interactions between its employees; how an organization is run, how it operates, and how it makes decisions
sexual harassment: sexually-based behavior that is knowingly unwanted and has an adverse effect of a person’s employment status, interferes with a person’s job performance, or creates a hostile or…
Theory Y: assumes workers are people who seek to work hard and productively; managers and workers can find creative solutions to problems; workers do not need to be controlled and punished

Chapter 14

Stress, Lifestyle, and Health

Read chapter 14 in the book

Summary

Hans Selye, a noted endocrinologist, referred to these physiological reactions to stress as part of general adaptation syndrome, which occurs in three stages: alarm reaction (fight-or-flight reactions begin)… The scientific study of how stress and emotional factors impact health and well-being is called health psychology, a field devoted to studying the general impact of psychological factors on health. The body’s primary physiological response during stress, the fight-or-flight response, was first identified in the early 20th century by Walter Cannon. The fight-or-flight response involves the coordinated activity of both the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

Key terms

stress: process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that one appraises as overwhelming or threatening to one’s well-being
fight-or-flight response: set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual encounters a perceived threat; these reactions…
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS): popular scale designed to measure stress; consists of 43 potentially stressful events, each of which has a numerical value quantifying how much readjustment is associated with…
daily hassles: minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable of producing stress
alarm reaction: first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as the body’s immediate physiological reaction to a threatening situation or some other emergency; analogous to the…
general adaptation syndrome: Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological reactions to stress and the process of stress adaptation: alarm reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion
health psychology: subfield of psychology devoted to studying psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis: set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that regulate many of the body’s physiological…

Chapter 15

Psychological Disorders

Read chapter 15 in the book

Summary

The diagnosis and classification of psychological disorders is essential in studying and treating psychopathology. Although challenging, it is essential for psychologists and mental health professionals to agree on what kinds of inner experiences and behaviors constitute the presence of a psychological disorder. Harmful dysfunction describes the view that psychological disorders result from the inability of an internal mechanism to perform its natural function. Many of the features of harmful dysfunction conceptualization have been incorporated in the APA’s formal definition of psychological disorders.

Key terms

psychological disorder: condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
psychopathology: study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, causes, and treatment; manifestation of a psychological disorder
presence of a psychological disorder: signaled by significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; these disturbances must reflect some kind of dysfunction (biological…
harmful dysfunction: model of psychological disorders resulting from the inability of an internal mechanism to perform its natural function
diagnosis: determination of which disorder a set of symptoms represents
atypical: describes behaviors or feelings that deviate from the norm
diathesis-stress model: suggests that people with a predisposition for a disorder (a diathesis) are more likely to develop the disorder when faced with stress; model of psychopathology
dissociative disorders: group of DSM-5 disorders in which the primary feature is that a person becomes dissociated, or split off, from their core sense of self, resulting in disturbances in identity and…

Chapter 16

Therapy and Treatment

Read chapter 16 in the book

Summary

In the mid-1960s, the deinstitutionalization movement gained support and asylums were closed, enabling people with mental illness to return home and receive treatment in their own communities. Later, asylums were built to house the mentally ill, but the patients received little to no treatment, and many of the methods used were cruel. Today, instead of asylums, there are psychiatric hospitals run by state governments and local community hospitals, with the emphasis on short-term stays. It was once believed that people with psychological disorders, or those exhibiting strange behavior, were possessed by demons.

Key terms

deinstitutionalization: process of closing large asylums and integrating people back into the community where they can be treated locally
asylum: institution created for the specific purpose of housing people with psychological disorders
couples therapy: two people in an intimate relationship, such as husband and wife, who are having difficulties and are trying to resolve them with therapy
structural family therapy: therapist examines and discusses with the family the boundaries and structure of the family: who makes the rules, who sleeps in the bed with whom, how decisions are made, and…
token economy: controlled setting where individuals are reinforced for desirable behaviors with tokens (e.g., poker chip) that be exchanged for items or privileges
involuntary treatment: therapy that is mandated by the courts or other systems
cognitive therapy: form of psychotherapy that focuses on how a person’s thoughts lead to feelings of distress, with the aim of helping them change these irrational thoughts
comorbid disorder: individual who has two or more diagnoses, which often includes a substance abuse diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia