Common clinical manifestations of osteoporosis include bone fractures, back pain, kyphosis, and a loss of total height over several years. Osteopenia, a decrease in bone mineral density, is the precursor condition to osteoporosis

The underlying pathophysiology of osteoporosis involves too much resorption of small amounts of minerals from the bone over time. The gold standard diagnostic test for osteopenia and osteoporosis is the dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA or DXA) scan, which uses low-dose radiation x-rays to determine bone density of the hip, wrist, or spine.

resorption — breakdown and reabsorption over time of small amounts of minerals from the bone. kyphosis — excessive curvature of the upper spine. osteopenia — decrease in bone mineral density. external fixation — internal placement of screws on either side of a fracture by drilling pins into the bone and then connecting them to an external brace or bracket.